GARDEN-MAKING 


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OF  THE 
UNIX-ERSITY 


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Presents 

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dBarnervCtatt 

EDITED  BY  L.  H.  BAILEY 


GARDEN -MAKING 


GARDEN -MAKING 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  THE 
UTILIZING  OF  HOME   GROUNDS 


BY 

L.    H.    BAILEY 


Aided  by  L.   R.  TAFT,   Professor  of   Horticulture  in  the  Agriculture 

College  of  Michigan;    F.  A.  WAUGH,  Professor  of  Horticulture 

in  the  University  of  Vermont;    and  ERNEST  WALKER, 

Assistant  in  Horticulture  and  Entomology  in 

Clemson   College,   South   Carolina 


FIFTH   EDITION,  REVISED 


Stogtefc 

THE    MACMILLAN    COMPANY 

LONDON:    MACMILLAN  &   CO.,  LTD 

1901 

A II   rights   reserved 


ARCH 


CopYiiiGHT,    1898, 
By   L.    H.    BAILEY 


8«t  up  and  electrotyped  January,   1898 
Reprinted  May    J898,  January,  1899 
February  and  December,  1901 


J.  HORACE  MCFARLAND  COMPANY 
HARRISBURG  .  PENNSYLVANIA 


SB  93 

34 


-          OUTLINE 

SECTION    I 
GENERAL  ADVICE  .................       1-119 

The  mental  ideal,  1-7.  Preparation  of  the  land,  7-37 
(the  saving  of  moisture,  7;  preparing  the  under- 
soil, 12;  preparation  of  the  surface,  18;  tools  for 
weeding  and  subsequent  tillage,  24).  Sowing  and 
planting,  37-58  (sowing  the  seed,  37;  transplanting 
young  seedlings,  38;  transplanting  established 
plants  and  seeds,  44).  Winter  protection  of  plants, 
58-67.  The  forcing  of  plants,  67-88  (coldframes, 
71;  hotbeds,  75).  Insects  and  diseases,  88-103. 
Protecting  plants  from  animals,  103-108.  Keeping 
records  of  the  plantation,  109-114.  Enriching  the 
land  114-119. 

SECTION    II 
THE  PLAN  OF  THE  PLACE    ............  120-210 

The  picture  in  the  landscape,  121-158  (containing  a 
free  sketch  of  what  a  picture  is  and  how  it  may  be 
obtained,  contrasts  of  massed  and  scattered  plant- 
ings, discussions  of  flower-beds,  borders,  types  of 
bushes  for  lawn  effects,  weeping  and  odd  trees,  the 
use  of  poplars  and  willows,  and  the  fundamentals 
of  landscape  gardening).  Various  specific  ex- 
amples, 158-170  (containing  plans  of  yards  and 
lawns).  How  to  make  the  improvements,  177-210 
(discusses  grading,  terraces,  banks,  sunken  fences, 
filling  about  trees,  walks  and  drives,  curbs,  sub- 
urban streets,  edges  of  walks  and  drives,  materials 
for  walks  and  drives,  etc.;  making  the  plan,  195; 
making  a  lawn,  199). 


(v) 

M670830 


VI  OUTLINE 

SECTION    III 

PAOES 

PLANTING  THE  ORNAMENTAL  GROUNDS 211-301 

Choosing  the  plants,  211-220.  List  of  ornamental 
plants  which  are  hardy  in  Central  Michigan,  220- 
240.  Plants  for  floral  effects  (by  Ernest  Walker). 
... .  241-301,  containing:  (1)  Remarks  on  flower-beds, 
241;  (2)  Carpet-bedding,  243;  (3)  Edgings  and 
mass-beds,  251 ;  (4)  Annuals,  255;  (5)  Bulbous  and 
tuberous  plants,  207;  (<>)  Hard)'  herbaceous  per- 
ennials, 278;  (7)  Hardy  climbing  plants,  291; 
(8)  The  rose,  294. 

SECTION    IV 

THE   FRUIT  PLANTATION 302-347 

The  arrangement  of  the  fruit-garden,  302-305.  Ad- 
vice upon  the  growing  of  fruit  (by  Professor 
Taft),  305-347,  containing:  (1)  Northern  orchard 
fruits  (the  apple,  308,  the  pear,  313,  the  plum,  317, 
the  peach,  319,  apricots  and  nectarines,  323,  the 
cherry,  323);  (2)  Sub-tropical  fruits  (the  orange, 
325,  the  olive,  329,  the  pineapple,  330,  banana, 
330,  fig,  331);  (3)  The  grape,  332;  (4)  Small-fruits 
(red  and  black  raspberries  330;  blackberries  and 
dewberries,  339;  currants,  340;  gooseberries,  342; 
strawberries,  343). 

SECTION    V 
THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 348-385 

Plans  for  the  kitchen-garden,  348-352.  The  vegetable 
garden  (by  Professor  Waugh),  353-385,  containing: 
(1)  Root  crops  and  tubers  (beet,  carrot,  parsnip, 
potato,  etc.),  353;  (2)  Alliaceous  group  (onions, 
etc.),  360;  (3)  Leguminous  group  (beans  and  peas), 
361;  (4)  Brassicaceous  group  (cabbage,  kale,  etc.), 
364  ;  (5)  Solanaceous  group  (tomatoes,  egg-plant, 


OUTLINE 


Vll 


etc.).  369;  (6)  Cucurbitaceous  group  (cucumber, 
melon,  squash,  etc.),  373;  (7)  Salad  plants  and  pot- 
herbs (lettuce,  cress,  endive,  spinach,  etc.)>  376; 
(8)  Miscellaneous  vegetables  (celery,  asparagus, 
sweet  corn,  etc.),  380;  (9)  Sweet  herbs,  385. 


SECTION    VI 

SEASONAL  REMINDERS .  386-411 

General  remarks,  386-389.  Calendars  for  the  North 
(by  T.  Greiner),  389-401.  Calendars  for  the  South 
(by  H.  W.  Smith  and  F.  H.  Burnette),  402-411 


INDEX    . 413-417 


GARDEN -MAKING 


SECTION  I 


GENERAL    ADVICE 

Every  family  can  have  a  garden.  If  there  is 
not  a  foot  of  land,  there  are  porches  or  windows. 
Wherever  there  is  sunlight,  plants  may  be  made 
to  grow  ;  and  one  plant  in  a  tin -can  may  be  a 
more  helpful  and  inspiring  garden  to  some  mind 
than  a  whole  acre  of  lawn  and  flowers  may  be  to 
another.  The  satisfaction  of  a  garden  does  not 
depend  upon  the  area,  nor,  happily,  upon  the 
cost  or  rarity  of  the  plants.  It  depends  upon  the 
temper  of  the  person.  One  must  first  seek  to 
love  plants  and  nature,  and  then  to  cultivate  that 
happy  peace  of  mind  which  is  satisfied  with  little. 
He  will  be  happier  if  he  has  no  rigid  and  arbi- 
trary ideals,  for  gardens  are  coquettish,  particu- 
larly with  the  novice.  If  plants  grow  and  thrive, 
he  should  be  happy;  and  if  the  plants  which 
thrive  chance  not  to  be  the  ones  which  he  planted, 
they  are  plants  nevertheless,  and  nature  is  satis- 
fied with  them.  We  are  apt  to  covet  the  things 


2  GENERAL    ADVICE 

which  we  cannot  have ;  but  we  are  happier  when 
we  love  the  things  which  grow  because  they  must. 
A  patch  of  lusty  pigweeds,  growing  and  crowding 
in  luxuriant  abandon,  may  be  a  better  and  more 
worthy  object  of  affection  than  a  bed  of  coleuses 
in  which  every  spark  of  life  and  spirit  and  indi- 
viduality has  been  sheared  out  and  suppressed. 
The  man  who  worries  morning  and  night  about 
the  dandelions  in  the  lawn  will  find  great  relief 
in  loving  the  dandelions.  Each  blossom  is  worth 
more  than  a  gold  coin,  as  it  shimmers  in  the 
exuberant  sunlight  of  the  growing  spring,  and 
attracts  the  bees  to  its  bosom.  Little  children 
love  the  dandelions  :  why  may  not  we  ?  Love 
the  things  nearest  at  hand ;  and  love  intensely. 
If  I  were  to  write  a  motto  over  the  gate  of  a  gar- 
den, I  should  choose  the  remark  which  Socrates 
made  as  he  saw  the  luxuries  in  the  market, 
"How  much  there  is  in  the  world  that  I  do  not 
want ! " 

I  verily  believe  that  this  paragraph  which  I 
have  just  written  is  worth  more  than  all  the 
advice  with  which  I  intend  to  cram  the  succeeding 
pages,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  I  have  most 
assiduously  extracted  this  advice  from  various 
worthy  but,  happily,  long-forgotten  authors. 
Happiness  is  a  quality  of  a  person,  not  of  a 
plant  or  a  garden ;  and  the  anticipation  of  joy 
in  the  writing  of  a  book  may  be  the_  reason  why 
so  many  books  on  garden-making  have  been  writ- 


GARDENING    BOOKS  3 

ten.  Of  course,  all  these  books  have  been  good 
and  useful.  It  would  be  ungrateful,  at  the  least, 
for  the  present  writer  to  say  otherwise ;  but 
books  grow  old,  and  the  advice  becomes  too  fa- 
miliar. The  sentences  need  to  be  transposed  and 
the  order  of  the  chapters  varied,  now  and  then, 
or  interest  lags.  Or,  to  speak  plainly,  a  new 
book  of  advice  upon  handicraft  is  needed  in  every 
decade.  There  has  been  a  long  and  worthy  pro- 
cession of  these  handbooks, — Gardiner  &  Hepburn, 
M'Mahon,  Cobbett — original,  pungent,  ubiquitous 
Cobbett! — Fessenden,  Bridgeman,  Sayers,  Buist, 
and  a  dozen  more,  each  one  a  little  richer  because 
the  others  had  been  written.  But  even  the  fact 
that  these  books  pass  into  oblivion  does  not 
deter  another  hand  from  making  still  another 
venture ! 

I  expect,  then,  that  every  person  who  reads 
this  book  will  make  a  garden,  or  will  try  to 
make  one ;  but  if  only  tares  grow  where  roses 
are  desired,  I  must  remind  the  reader  that  at  the 
outset  I  advised  pigweeds.  The  book,  therefore, 
will  suit  everybody, — the  experienced  gardener, 
because  it  will  be  an  echo  of  what  he  already 
knows  ;  and  the  novice,  because  it  will  apply  as 
well  to  a  garden  of  burdocks  as  of  onions. 

A  garden  is  the  personal  part  of  an  estate,  that 
area  which  is  most  intimately  associated  with  the 
private  life  of  the  home.  Originally,  the  garden 
was  the  area  inside  the  enclosure  or  lines  of  forti- 


4  GENERAL    ADVICE 

fication,  in  distinction  to  the  unprotected  area  or 
fields  which  lay  beyond ;  and  this  latter  area  was 
the  particular  domain  of  agriculture.  This  book 
understands  the  garden  to  be  that  part  of  the 
premises  which  is  devoted  to  ornament,  and  to 
the  growing  of  vegetables  and  fruits  either  for 
the  home  consumption  or  for  market.  The  gar- 
den is,  therefore,  an  ill- denned  demesne ;  but  the 
reader  must  not  make  the  mistake  of  defining  it 
by  dimensions,  for  one  may  have  a  garden  in  a 
flower-pot  or  on  a  thousand  acres.  In  other 
words,  this  book  believes  that  every  bit  of  land 
which  is  not  used  for  buildings,  walks,  drives 
and  fences,  should  be  planted.  What  we  shall 
plant, — whether  sward,  lilacs,  thistles,  cabbages, 
pears,  chrysanthemums  or  tomatoes, — we  shall 
talk  about  as  we  proceed. 

The  only  way  to  keep  land  perfectly  unpro- 
ductive is  to  keep  it  moving.  The  moment  the 
owner  lets  it  alone,  the  planting  has  begun.  In 
my  own  garden,  this  first  planting  is  of  pigweeds. 
These  are  usually  followed,  the  next  year,  by 
ragweeds,  then  by  docks  and  thistles,  with  here 
and  there  a  start  of  clover  and  grass  ;  and  it  all 
ends  in  June-grass  and  dandelions.  Nature  does 
not  allow  the  land  to  remain  bare  and  idle. 
Even  the  bank  where  plaster  and  lath  were 
dumped  two  years  ago  is  now  luxuriant  with 
burdocks  and  sweet  clover;  and  yet  people  who 
pass  that  dump  every  day  say  that  they  can 


THE    USEFUL    BURDOCK  5 

grow  nothing  in  their  own  yard  because  the 
soil  is  so  poor !  Yet,  I  venture  that  those  same 
persons  furnish  most  of  the  pigweed  seed  which 
I  use  on  my  garden. 

The  lesson  is  that  there  is  no  soil, — where  a 
house  would  be  built, — so  poor  that  something 
cannot  be  grown.  If  burdocks  will  grow,  some- 
thing else  will  grow ;  or  if  nothing  else  will 


The  ornamental  burdock. 


grow,  then  I  prefer  burdocks  to  sand  and  rub- 
bish. The  burdock  is  one  of  the  most  striking 
and  decorative  of  plants,  and  a  good  piece  of  it 
against  a  building  or  on  a  rough  bank  is  just  as 
useful  as  some  plant  which  costs  money  and  is 
difficult  to  grow.  I  had  a  good  clump  of  it  under 
my  study  window,  and  it  was  a  great  comfort,  but 
the  man  would  persist  in  cutting  it  down  when 


6  GENERAL    ADVICE 

he  mowed  the  lawn.  When  I  remonstrated,  he 
declared  that  it  was  nothing  but  burdock ;  but  I 
insisted  that,  so  far  from  being  burdock,  it  was 
really  Lappa  major,  since  which  time  the  plant 
has  enjoyed  his  utmost  respect.  And  I  find  that 
most  of  my  friends  reserve  their  appreciation  of 
a  plant  until  they  have  learned  its  name  and 
connections. 

The  dump-heap  which  I  mentioned  has  a  surface 
area  of  nearly  one-hundred  and  fifty  square  feet, 
and  I  find  that  it  has  grown  over  two  hundred 
good  plants  of  one  kind  or  another  this  year. 
This  is  more  than  my  gardener  accomplished  on 
an  equal  area,  with  manure  and  water  and  a  man 
to  help.  The  difference  was  that  the  plants  on 
the  dump  wanted  to  grow,  and  the  imported 
plants  in  the  garden  did  not  want  to  grow.  It 
was  the  difference  between  a  willing  horse  and  a 
balky  one.  If  a  person  wants  to  show  his  skill, 
he  may  choose  the  balky  plant:  but  if  he  wants 
fun  and  comfort  in  gardening,  he  had  better 
choose  the  willing  one. 

I  have  never  been  able  to  find  out  when  the  bur- 
docks and  mustard  were  planted  on  the  dump; 
and  I  am  sure  that  they  were  never  hoed  or  wa- 
tered. Nature  practices  a  wonderfully  rigid  econ- 
omy. For  nearly  half  the  summer  she  even 
refused  rain  to  the  plants,  but  still  they  thrived; 
yet  I  staid  home  from  a  vacation  one  summer 
that  I  might  keep  my  plants  from  dying.  I  have 


CONSERVING    MOISTURE  7 

since  learned  that  if  the  plants  in  my  borders  can- 
not take  care  of  themselves  for  a  few  weeks,  they 
are  little  comfort  to  me. 

PREPARATION   OF    THE   LAND 

Having  now  discussed  the  most  essential  ele- 
ments of  gardening,  we  may  give  our  attention 
to  such  minor  features  as  the  preparation  of  the 
land,  fertilizing,  and  the  details  of  planting. 
Almost  any  land  contains  enough  food  for  the 
growing  of  good  crops,  but  the  food  elements  may 
be  chemically  unavailable,  or  there  may  be  insuffi- 
cient water  to  dissolve  them.  It  is  too  long  a 
story  to  explain  _  the  philosophy  of  tillage  at  this 
place,  and  the  reader  who  desires  to  make  excur- 
sions into  this  delightful  subject  should  consult 
King  on  "The  Soil"  and  Roberts  on  "The  Fer- 
tility of  the  Land."  The  reader  must  accept  the 
bare  statement  that  tilling  the  land  makes  it  pro- 
ductive. 

THE  SAVING  OF  MOISTURE. — Proper  preparation 
and  tillage  also  put  the  land  in  such  condition  that 
it  holds  the  water  of  rainfall.  Land  which  is  very 
hard  and  compact  may  shed  the  rainfall,  particu- 
larly if  it  is  sloping  and  if  the  surface  is  bare  of 
vegetation.  If  the  hard-pan  is  near  the  surface, 
the  land  cannot  hold  much  water,  and  any  ordi- 
nary rainfall  may  fill  it  so  full  that  it  overflows, 
or  puddles  stand  on  the  surface.  Upon  land  which 
is  in  good  tilth,  the  water  of  rainfall  sinks  away, 


8  GENERAL    ADVICE 

and  is  not  visible  as  free  water.  As  soon  as  the 
moisture  begins  to  depart  from  the  superincumbent 
atmosphere,  evaporation  begins  from  the  surface 
of  the  land.  Any  body  which  is  interposed  be- 
tween the  land  and  the  air  checks  this  evaporation : 
this  is  why  there  is  moisture  underneath  a  board. 
It  is  impracticable,  however,  to  floor  over  the  gar- 
den with  boards,  but  any  covering  will  have  the 
same  effect,  but  in  different  degree.  A  covering 
of  sawdust  or  leaves  or  dry  ashes_will  prevent  the 
loss  of  moisture.  So  will  a  covering  of  dry  earth. 
Now,  inasmuch  as  the  land  is  already  covered  with 
earth,  it  only  remains  to  loosen  up  a  layer  or 
stratum  on  top  in  order  to  secure  our  mulch. 

All  this  is  only  a  roundabout  way  of  saying  that 
frequent  shallow  surface  tillage  conserves  moisture. 
The  comparatively  dry  and  loose  mulch  breaks  up 
the  capillary  connection  between  the  surface  soil 
and  the  under  soil,  and  while  the  mulch  itself 
may  be  useless  as  a  foraging  ground  for  roots, 
it  more  than  pays  its  keep  by  its  preventing  of 
the  loss  of  moisture  ;  and  its  own  soluble  plant- 
foods  are  washed  down  into  the  lower  soil  by  the 
rains.  As  often  as  the  surface  becomes  compact, 
the  mulch  should  be  renewed  or  repaired  by  the 
use  of  the  rake  or  cultivator  or  harrow.  People 
are  deceived  by  supposing  that  so  long  as  the 
surface  remains  moist,  the  land  is  in  the  best 
possible  condition;  but  a  moist  surface  only 
means  that  water  is  rapidly  passing  off  into  "the 


SOIL -MULCH  9 

atmosphere.  A  dry  surface  means  that  little 
evaporation  is  taking  place.  A  finely  raked  bed 
is  dry  on  top ;  but  the  footprints  of  the  cat  re- 
main moist  for  days,  for  the  animal  packed  the 


2.    Ideal  preparation  of  land. 

soil  wherever  it  stepped  and  a  capillary  con- 
nection was  established  with  the  water  reservoir 
beneath.  Gardeners  advise  firming  the  earth 
over  newly  planted  seeds  to  hasten  germination. 
This  is  essential  in  dry  times;  but  what  we  gain 


10  GENERAL    ADVICE 

in  hastening  germination  we  lose  in  the  more 
rapid  evaporation  of  moisture.  The  lesson  is  that 
we  should  loosen  the  soil  as  soon  as  the  seeds  have 
germinated,  to  reduce  the  evaporation  to  the  mini- 
mum. Large  seeds,  as  beans  and  peas,  can  be 
planted  deep  and  have  the  earth  firmed  about 
them,  and  then  the  rake  may  be  applied  to  the 
surface  to  stop  the  rise  of  moisture  before  it 
reaches  the  air. 

The  illustrations,  adapted  from  Roberts'  "Fer- 
tility," show  good  and  poor  preparation  of  the 
land.  Fig.  2  is  a  section  of  land  twelve  inches 
deep.  The  under  soil  has  been  finely  broken  and 
pulverized  and  then  compacted.  It  is  mellow  but 
firm,  and  is  an  excellent  water  reservoir.  Three 
inches  of  the  surface  is  a  mulch  of  loose  and  dry 
earth.  Fig.  3  shows  an  earth -mulch,  but  it  is  too 
shallow;  and  the  under  soil  is  so  open  and  cloddy 
that  the  water  runs  through  it. 

This  subject  of  the  conservation  of  moisture  is 
so  important  that  I  wish  to  present  it  in  various 
ways.  The  following  extract,  although  written 
for  children  ("A  Children's  Garden"),  may  still 
further  explain  the  matter:  "I  wonder  if  you 
have  a  watering-pot?  If  you  have,  put  it  where 
you  cannot  find  it,  for  we  are  going  to  water  this 
garden  with  a  rake!  We  want  you  to  learn,  in 
this  little  garden,  the  first  great  lesson  in  farming, 
— how  to  save  the  water  in  the  soil.  If  you  learn 
that  much  this  summer,  you  will  know  more  than 


THE    SOIL -MULCH  11 

many  old  farmers  do.  You  know  that  the  soil  is 
moist  in  the  spring  when  you  plant  the  seeds. 
Where  does  this  moisture  go?  It  dries  up, — goes 
off  into  the  air.  If  we  could  cover  the  soil 


Slovenly  preparation  of  land. 


with  something,  we  should  prevent  the  moisture 
from  drying  up.  Let  us  cover  it  with  a  layer  of 
loose,  dry  earth!  We  will  make  this  covering  «by 
raking  the  bed  every  few  days,  —  once  every  week 
anyway,  and  oftener  than  that  if  the  top  of  the 


12  GENERAL    ADVICE 

soil  becomes  hard  and  crusty,  as  it  does  after  a 
rain.  Instead  of  pouring  water  on  the  bed,  there- 
fore, we  will  keep  the  moisture  in  the  bed.  If, 
however,  the  soil  becomes  so  dry  in  spite  of  you 
that  the  plants  do  not  thrive,  then  water  the  bed. 
Do  not  sprinkle  it,  but  water  it.  Wet  it  clear 
through  at  evening.  Then  in  the  morning,  when 
the  surface  begins  to  dry,  begin  the  raking 
again  to  keep  the  water  from  getting  away. 
Sprinkling  the  plants  every  day  or  two  is  one  of 
the  surest  ways  of  spoiling  them." 

PREPARING  THE  UNDER -SOIL.— The  first  step  in 
the  preparation  of  land,  after  it  has  been  thor- 
oughly cleared  and  subdued  of  forest  or  previous 
vegetation,  is  to  attend  to  the  drainage.  All  land 
which  is  springy,  low  and  "sour,"  or  which  holds 
the  water  in  puddles  for  a  day  or  two  following 
heavy  rains,  should  be  thoroughly  underdrained. 
Draining  also  improves  the  physical  condition  of 
the  soil,  even  when  the  land  does  not  need  ditch- 
ing for  the  removal  of  superfluous  water.  In  hard 
lands,  it  lowers  the  water-table,  or  tends  to  loosen 
and  aerate  the  soil  to  a  greater  depth,  and  thereby 
enables  it  to  hold  more  water  without  injury  to 
plants.  Drainage  is  particularly  useful  in  dry  but 
hard  garden  lands,  because  these  lands  are  often 
in  sod  or  permanently  planted,  and  the  soil  can- 
not be  broken  up  by  deep  tillage.  Tile  drain- 
age is  permanent  subsoiling. 

In   most   regions,   well    baked    cylindrical   tiles 


DITCHING  13 

make  the  best^and  most  permanent  drains.  The 
ditches  should  not  be  less  than  two  and  one-half 
feet  deep,  and  three  or  three  and  one -half  feet  is 
a  better  depth.  In  most  garden  areas,  drains  may 
be  laid  with  profit  as 
often  as  every  thirty  feet. 
Give  all  drains  a  good  and 
continuous  fall.  For 
single  drains,  and  for 
laterals  not  over  four 
hundred  or  five  hundred 
feet  long,  a  two  and  one- 
half  inch  tile  is  sufficient, 
unless  much  water  must 
be  carried  from  swales  or 
springs.  In  stony  coun- 
tries, flat  stones  may  be 
used  in  place  of  tiles,  and 
persons  who  are  skillful 
in  laying  them  make 
drains  as  good  and  per- 
manent as  those  con- 

4.     Ditching  tools. 

structed     of     tiles.       The 

tiles  or  stones  are  covered  with  sods,  straw  or 
paper,  and  the  earth  is  then  filled  in.  This 
temporary  cover  keeps  the  loose  dirt  out  of  the 
tiles,  and  by  the  time  it  is  rotted  the  earth 
has  settled  into  place. 

In    small   places,   ditching    must    ordinarily  be 
done  wholly  with  hand  tools.     A  common  spade 


14 


GENERAL    ADVICE 


and  pick  are  the  implements  usually  employed, 
although  a  spade  with  a  long  handle  and  narrow 
blade,  as  shown  in  Fig.  4,  is  very  useful  for  exca- 
vating the  bottom  of  the  ditch.  In  most  cases, 
much  time  and  muscle  are  wasted  in  the  use  of 
the  pick.  If  the  digging  is  properly  done,  a  spade 
can  be  used  to  cut  the  soil,  even  in  fairly  hard 
clay  land,  with  no  great  difficulty.  The  essential 


5.    How  to  handle  the  spade. 


point  in  the  easy  use  of  the  spade  is  to  so  manage 
that  one  edge  of  the  spade  always  cuts  a  free  or 
exposed  surface.  The  illustration  (Fig.  5)  will 
explain  the  method.  When  the  operator  endeavors 
to  cut  the  soil  in  the  method  shown  at  A,  he  is 
obliged  to  break  both  surfaces  at  every  thrust  of 
the  tool;  but  when  he  cuts  the  slice  diagonally, 
first  throwing  his  spade  to  the  right  and  then  to 
the  left,  as  shown  at  B,  he  cuts  only  one  surface, 
and  is  able  to  make  progress  without  the  expendi- 


DRAINING 


15 


ture  of  useless  effort.  These  remarks  will  apply, 
with  almost  equal  force,  to  any  spading  of  the 
land. 

•In  large  areas,  horses  may  be  used  to  facilitate 
the  work  of  ditching.  There  are  ditching  plows, 
which,  however,  need  not  be  discussed  here  ;  but 
three  or  four  furrows  can  be  thrown  out  in  either 
direction  with  an  ordinarily  strong  plow,  and  a 
sub -soil  plow  can  be  run  behind  to  break  up  the 
hard-pan,  and  this  may  reduce  the  labor  of  dig- 
ging as  much  as  one -half.  When  the  excavating 


6.     Trenching  with  a  spade. 


is  completed,  the  bottom  of  the  ditch  is  evened  up 
by  means  of  a  line  or  level,  and  the  bed  for  the 
tiles  is  prepared  by  the  use  of  a  goose-neck  scoop, 
shown  in  Fig.  4.  It  is  very  important  that  the 
outlets  of  drains  be  kept  free  of  weeds  and 
litter.  If  the  outlet  is  built  up  with  mason  work, 
so  as  to  hold  the  end  of  the  tile  intact,  very  much 
will  be  added  to  the  permanency  of  the  drain. 

Although  under -draining  is  the  most  important 
means  of  increasing  the  d^pth  of  the  soil,  it  is 
not  always  practicable  to  lay  drains  through  gar- 
den lands,  either  because  the  lands  are  already 


16  GENERAL    ADVICE 

planted  or  built  upon,  or  because  suitable  outlets 
can  not  be  found.  In  such  cases,  recourse  is  had 
to  very  deep  preparation  of  the  land,  either  every 
year  or  every  two  or  three  years.  In  small  gar- 
den areas,  this  deep  preparation  will  ordinarily 
be  done  by  trenching  with  a  spade.  This  opera- 
tion of  trenching  consists  in  breaking  up  the  earth 
two  spades  deep.  Fig.  6  explains  the  operation. 
The  section  at  the  left  shows  a  single  spading,  the 


7.     Home-made  subsoil  plow. 

earth  being  thrown  over  to  the  right,  leaving  the. 
subsoil  exposed  the  whole  width  of  the  bed.  The 
section  at  the  right  shows  a  similar  operation,  so 
far  as  the  surface  spading  is  concerned,  but  the 
subsoil  has  also  been  cut  as  fast  as  it  has  been 
exposed.  This  under  soil  is  not  thrown  out  upon 
the  surface,  and  usually  it  is  not  inverted;  but  a 
spadeful  is  lifted  and  then  allowed  to  drop  so  that 
it  is  thoroughly  broken  and  pulverized  in  the 
manipulation.  In  all  lands  which  have  a  hard 


SUBSOIL    PLOWING 


17 


and  high  subsoil,  it  is  almost  essential  to  practice 
trenching  if  the  best  results  are  to  be  obtained; 
and  this  is  especially  true  when  deep-rooted  plants, 
like  beets,  parsnips  and  other  root-crops,  are  desired. 
In  places  which  can  be  entered  with  the  plow, 
deep  and  heavy  plowing  to  the  depth  of  seven  to 
ten  inches  may  be  desirable  upon  hard  lands, 
especially  if  such  lands  cannot  be  plowed  very 


8.     Types  of   subsoil  plows. 

often;  and  the  depth  of  the  pulverization  is  often 
extended  by  means  of  the  subsoil  plow.  This 
subsoil  plow  does  not  turn  a  furrow,  but  a 
second  .team  draws  the  implement  behind  the 
ordinary  plow,  and  the  bottom  of  the  furrow  is 
loosened  and  broken.  Fig.  7  shows  a  home-made 
subsoil  plow,  and  Fig.  8  two  types  of  commer- 
cial tools.  It  must  be  remembered  that  it  is  the 
hardest  lands  which  need  subsoiling,  and  that, 
therefore,  the  subsoil  plow  should  be  exceedingly 


18 


GENERAL    ADVICE 


strong.  Fig.  9  shows  various  types  of  model 
surface  plows.  The  one  shown  at  the  upper  left- 
hand  is  considered  by  Roberts,  in  his  "Fertility 
of  the  Land/'  to  be  the  ideal  general -purpose 
plow,  as  respects  shape  and  method  of  con- 
struction . 

PREPARATION  OF  THE  SURFACE. — Every  pains 
should  be  taken  to  prevent  the  surface  of  the  land 
from  becoming  crusty  or  baked,  for  we  have  al- 


9.     Types  of   model  plows. 

ready  found  that  the  hard  surface  establishes  a 
capillary  connection  with  the  moist  soil  beneath, 
and  is  a  means  of  passing  off  the  water  into  the 
atmosphere.  Loose  and  mellow  soil  also  has 
more  free  plant -food,  and  provides  the  most  con- 
genial conditions  for  the  growth  of  plants.  If  the 
soil  is  a  stiff  clay,  it  is  often  advisable  to  plow 
it  or  dig  it  in  the  fall,  allowing  it  to  lie  rough 
and  loose  all  winter,  so  that  the  weathering 
may  pulverize  and  slake  it.  If  the  clay  is  very 


SPADING    AND    FORKING  19 

tenacious,  it  may  be  necessary  to  throw  leaf- 
mold  or  litter  over  the  surface  before  the  spading 
is  done,  to  prevent  the  soil  from  running  together 
or  cementing  before  spring.  With  mellow  and 
loamy  lands,  however,  it  is  ordinarily  best  to  leave 
the  preparation  of  the  surface  until  spring. 

In  the  preparation  of  the  surface,  the  ordinary 
hand  tools,  or  spades  and  shovels,  may  be  used. 
If,  however,  the  soil  is  mellow,  a  fork  is  a  better 
tool   than  a  spade,  from   the   fact 
that    it   does    not    slice   the    soil, 
but    tends    to    break   it    up   into 
smaller  and  more  irregular  masses. 
The    ordinary    spading -fork,  with 
strong,  flat   tines,  is  a  most  ser- 
viceable tool  ;    but   a  good   spad- 
ing-fork   may    be  made   from    an 
old  manure  fork  by  cutting  down 
the   tines,  as   shown  in    Fig.   10. 
It  is  essential  that  the  soil  should 
not  be  sticky  when  it  is  prepared, 
as    it    is    likely  to    become    hard 
and  baked  and  the  physical  con- 
dition greatly  injured.     However,     •/  ;/       ;j    'lj 
land    which   is    too  wet    for    the       *         *'    ' 
reception   of    seeds    may    still    be 
thrown  up   loose  with  a  spade  or 
fork  and  allowed  to  dry,  and  after  two  or  three 
days   the   surface   preparation   may  be    completed 
with  the  use  of   the  hoe  and  the  rake.     In  ordi- 


20 


GENERAL    ADVICE 


nary  soils,  the  hoe  is  the  tool  to  follow  the 
spading -fork  or  the  spade,  but  for  the  final  prep- 
aration of  the  surface  a  steel  garden-rake  is  the 
ideal  tool. 

In  areas  which  are  large  enough  to  admit  horse 
tools,  the  land  can  be  fitted  more  economically  by 
means  of  the  various  types  of  harrows  and  cul- 
tivators which  are  to  be  had  of  any  dealer  in 
agricultural  implements.  The  type  of  machine 
which  is  to  be  used  must  be  determined  wholly 


11.    Disc  and  Acme  harrows,  for  the  first  working  of  hard 
or  cloddy  land. 

by  the  character  of  the  land  and  the  purposes  for 
which  it  is  to  be  fitted.  Land  which  is  hard  and 
cloddy  may  be  reduced  by  the  use  of  the  disc  or 
Acme  harrows,  shown  in  Fig.  11,  but  lands  which 
are  friable  and  mellow  may  not  need  such  heavy 


HARROWS  21 

and  vigorous  tools.  Upon  these  mellower  lands, 
the  spring-tooth  harrow,  types  of  which  are  shown 
in  Fig.  12,  may  follow  the  plow.  Upon  very  hard 
lands,  these  spring-tooth  harrows  may  follow  the 


12.     Spring-tooth  burrows,  for  working  hard  or  medium- 
hard  lands,  and  to  follow  the  disc  or  Acme. 

disc  and  Acme  types.  The  final  preparation  of 
the  land  is  accomplished  by  light  implements  of 
the  pattern  shown  in  Fig.  13.  These  spike -tooth 
smoothing -harrows  do  for  the  field  what  the  hand- 
rake  does  for  the  garden-bed.  If  it  is  desired  to 
put  a  very  fine  finish  upon  the  surface  of  the 
ground  by  means  of  horse  tools,  implements  like 


22  GENERAL    ADVICE 

the  Breed  or  Wiard  weeder  may  be  used.  These 
are  constructed  upon  the  principle  of  a  spring- 
tooth  horse  hay -rake,  and  are  most  excellent,  not 
only  for  fitting  loose  land  for  ordinary  seeding, 
but  also  for  subsequent  tillage. 

In  areas  which  cannot  be  entered  with  a  team, 
various  one-horse  implements  may  be  used  to  do 
the  work  which  is  done  by  heavier  tools  in  the 
field.  The  spring -tooth  cultivator,  shown  at  the 
right  in  Fig.  14,  may  do  the  kind  of  work  which 


13.     Spike-tooth  harrow,  for  the  final  fitting  of  the  land. 

the  spring -tooth  harrows  are  expected  to  do  upon 
larger  areas;  and  various  adjustable  spike-tooth 
cultivators,  two  of  which  are  shown  in  Fig.  14, 
are  useful  for  putting  a  finish  upon  the  land. 
These  tools  are  also  available  for  the  tilling  of 
the  land  when  the  crops  are  growing.  The 
spring -tooth  cultivator  is  a  most  useful  tool  for 
cultivating  raspberries  and  strawberries,  and  other 
large -area  crops. 

For  still  smaller  areas,  in  which  horses  cannot 
be  used  and  which  are  still  too  large  for  tilling 
wholly  by  means  of  hoes  and  rakes,  various  types 
of  wheel -hoes  may  be  used.  These  implements 


WHEEL -HOBS  23 

are  now  made  in  great  variety  of  patterns,  to  suit 
any  taste  and  almost  any  kind  of  tillage.  For 
the  best  results,  it  is  essential  that  the  wheel 
should  be  large  and  with  a  broad  tire,  that 
it  may  override  obstacles.  Fig.  15  shows  an 
excellent  type  of  wheel -hoe  with  five  blades, 


14.     Spike-tooth  and  spring-tooth  cultivators,  to  be  used 
where  harrows  cannot  be  employed. 

and  Fig.  16  shows  one  with  a  single  blade  and 
which  may  be  used  in  very  narrow  rows.  Two- 
wheeled  hoes  are  often  used,  particularly  when  it 
is  necessary  to  have  the  implement  very  steady, 
and  they  may  be  used  to  straddle  the  rows  of 
low  plants.  Many  of  these  wheel -hoes  are  pro- 
vided with  various  types  of  blades,  so  that  the 
implement  may  be  adjusted  to  many  kinds  of 


24 


GENERAL    ADVICE 


work.  Nearly  all  the  weeding  of  beds  of  onions 
and  like  plants  can  be  done  by  means  of  these 
wheel -hoes,  if  the  ground  is  well  prepared  in  the 
beginning;  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  they 
are  of  comparatively  small  use  in  very  hard  and 
cloddy  and  stony  lands. 

TOOLS  FOR  WEEDING  AND  SUBSEQUENT  TIL- 
LAGE.—Any  of  the  cultivators  and  wheel -hoes  are 
as  useful  for  the  ^_  subsequent  tilling  of  the 


crop   as  for  the 
land,  but   there 


^    initial    preparation   of   the 
are  other  tools  also,  which 


15.     Good  type  of 
wheel-hoe. 


16.     A  single-blade       17.     Double  wheel- 
wheel-hoe,  hoe,  useful  in 

straddling  the  row. 


greatly  facilitate  the  keeping  of  the  plantation 
in  order.  The  common  rectangular-bladed  hoe 
is  so  thoroughly  established  in  the  popular  mind 
that  it  is  very  difficult  to  introduce  new  patterns, 
even  though  they  may  be  intrinsically  superior. 
As  a  general- purpose  tool,  it  is  no  doubt  true 
that  a  common  hoe  is  better  than  any  of  its 


THE    KINDS    OP    HOES  25 

modifications,  but  there  are  various  patterns  of 
hoe -blades  which  are  greatly  superior  for  special 
uses.  The  great  width  of  the  common  blade  does 
not  allow  of  its  being  used  in  very  narrow  rows 
or  very  close  to  delicate  plants,  and  it  does  not 
allow  of  the  deep  stirring  of  the  soil  in  narrow 
spaces.  It  is  also  difficult  to  enter  hard  ground 
with  such  a  broad  face.  Various  pointed  blades 
have  been  introduced  from  time  to  time,  and  al- 


18.     Double-pointed  hoes. 

most  any  of  them  have  distinct  merit.  Some  per- 
sons prefer  two  points  to  the  hoe,  as  shown  in 
Marvin's  blades,  in  Fig.  18.  Persons  who  fol- 
lowed the  entertaining  writings  of  Mr.  A.  B.  Tar- 
ryer  (a  pseudonym  for  a  well-known  experimenter) 
in  "American  Garden,"  a  few  years  back,  will 
recall  the  great  variety  of  implements  which  he 
advised  for  the  purpose  of  extirpating  his  hered- 
itary foes,  the  weeds.  A  variety  of  these  blades 
and  tools  is  shown  in  Figs.  19  and  20.  Mr.  Tar- 
ryer  contends  that  the  wheel-hoe  is  much  too  clumsy 
an  affair  to  allow  of  the  pursuit  of  an  individ- 


26 


GENERAL    ADVICE 


ual  weed.  While  the  operator  is  busy  adjusting 
his  machine  and  manipulating  it  about  the  cor- 
ners of  the  garden,  the  quack- grass  has  escaped 


19.     Some  of  the  Tarryer  hoes. 

over  the  fence  or  has  gone  to  seed  at  the  other 
end  of  the  plantation.  Upon  this  point  Mr.  Tar- 
ryer pronounces  as  follows: 

"Scores  of  times  during  the  season,  the  ten  or 


20.    A  stack  of   gardening  weapons,  comprising  some  of 
Tarryer's  weeding  spuds  and  thimbles. 


28  GENERAL    ADVICE 

fifteen  minutes  one  has  to  enjoy  in  the  flower, 
fruit  and  vegetable  garden — and  that  would  suffice 
for  the  needful  weeding  with  the  hoes  we  are 
celebrating — would  be  lost  in  harnessing  horses 
or  adjusting  and  oiling  squeaky  wheel -hoes,  even 
if  everybody  had  them.  The  'Garden'  is  not  big 
enough,  nor  my  patience  long  enough,  to  give 
more  than  an  inkling  of  the  unspeakable  merits 
of  these  weapons  of  society  and  civilization. 
When  Mrs.  Tarryer  was  showing  twelve  or  fif- 
teen acres  of  garden  with  never  a  weed  to  be 
seen,  she  valued  her  dozen  or  more  of  these  light 
implements  at  five  or  ten  dollars  daily;  whether 
they  were  in  actual  use  or  adorning  the  front 
hall,  like  a  hunter's  or  angler's  furniture,  made 
no  difference.  But  where  are  these  millennial 
tools  made  and  sold?  Nowhere.  They  are  as 
unknown  as  the  Bible  was  in  the  dark  ages, 
and  we  must  give  a  few  hints  towards  manu- 
facturing them. 

"First,  about  the  handles.  The  ordinary  dealer 
or  workman  may  say  these  knobs  can  be  formed 
on  any  handles  by  winding  them  with  leather; 
but  just  fancy  a  young  maiden  setting  up  her  hoe 
meditatively  and  resting  her  hands  and  chin  upon 
an  old  leather  knob  to  reflect  upon  something  that 
has  been  said  to  her  in  the  garden,  and  we  shall 
perceive  that  a  knob  by  some  other  name  would 
smell  far  sweeter.  Moreover,  trees  grow  large 
enough  at  the  butt  to  furnish  all  the  knobs  we 


HOE    HANDLES. 


29 


want — even    for    broom-sticks— though    sawyers, 

turners,   dealers  and  the   public  seem   not   to  be 

aware  of   it;   yet  it  must  be 

confessed     we     are     so     far 

gone  in  depravity  that  there 

will    be    trouble   in    getting 

those  handles.     *     *    *     * 

"In  a  broadcast  prayer  of 
this  public  nature,  absolute 
specifications  would  not  be 
polite.  Black  walnut  and 
butternut  are  fragrant  as  well 
as  beautiful  timber.  Cherry 
is  stiff,  heavy,  durable,  and, 
like  maple,  takes  a  slippery 

polish.      For   fine,  light    handles, 
that   the   palrn  will   stick  to,  butt 
cuts     of     poplar    or     cottonwood 
cannot    be   excelled,    yet 
straight -grained  ash  will 
bear  more  careless  usage. 
"The   handles  of 
Mrs.  Tarry er's  hoes 


22.      Home-made 
scarifier. 


are  never  perfectly  straight.       All    the   bayonet 
class    bend    downward   in  use   half   an    inch    or 


30 


GENERAL    ADVICE 


more ;  all  the  thrust -hoe  handles  bend  up  in 
a  regular  curve  (like  a  fiddle-bow  turned  over) 
two  or  three  inches.  Unless 
they  are  hung  right,  these 
hoes  are  very  awkward  things. 
When  perfectly  fit  for  one, 
they  may  not  fit  another— 
that  is,  a  tall,  keen -sighted 
person  cannot  use  the 
hoe  that  is  just  fit  for 
a  very  short  one.  *  * 
Curves  in  the  handles 
throw  centers  of  grav- 
ity where  they  belong. 
Good  timber  generally 
warps  in  a  handle 
about  right,  only 

implement  -  mak-   24 

ers  and  babes  in  of  the  best 

weeding  may  not  hand-weed- 

know  when  it  is 

made  fast  right  side  up  in 

the  hoe. 

"There  are  plenty  of 
thrust  -  hoes  in 
market,  such  as 
they  are.  Some 
have  malleable  iron 
sockets  and  bows 

26.    Finger-weeder.  —heavier      to      the 


23.     Home-made 
scarifier  or  scraper. 


25.    Home-made  hand 
weeder. 


SCARIFIERS 


31 


buyer  and  cheaper  to  the  dealer — instead  of  wrought- 
ironand  steel,  such  as  is  required  for  true  worth." 
For  many  purposes,  tools  which  scrape  or  scar- 
ify the  surface  are  preferable  to  hoes  which  dig 
up  the  ground.  Weeds  may  be  kept  down  by 
cutting  them  off,  as  in  walks  and  often 
in  flower-beds,  rather  than  by  rooting 
them  out.  Fig.  21  shows  such  a  tool, 


27.  Long 
handled 
trowel. 


28.  Improvised    29.  Weed- 
trowel,  spud. 


30.  Weed-cutter. 


and  a  home-made  implement  answering  the  same 
purpose  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  22.  This  latter  tool 
is  easily  made  from  strong  band-iron.  Another 
type  is  suggested  in  Fig.  23,  which  represents  a 
slicing -hoe  made  by  fastening  a  sheet  of  metal 
to  the  tines  of  a  broken  fork. 


32 


GENERAL    ADVICE 


For  small  beds  of  flowers  or  vegetables,  hand- 
weeders  of  various  patterns  are  essential  to  easy 
and  efficient  work.  One  of  the  best  pat- 
terns, with  long  and  short  handles,  is 
shown  in  Fig.  24.  Another  style,  which 
may  be  made  at  home  of  hoop -iron,  is 
drawn  in  Fig.  25.  A  finger-weeder  is 
shown  in  Fig.  26.  Many  patterns  of 
hand-weeders  are  in  the  market,  and 
other  forms  will  suggest  themselves  to 
the  operator. 

Small  hand -tools  for  digging,  as  trow- 
els, dibbers  and    spuds,   may  be    had    of 
dealers.      In  buying  a  trowel   it   is  econ- 
omy to  pay  an  extra  price  and  secure  a 
steel    blade   with    a   strong   shank   which 
runs    through    the    entire    length    of    the 
handle.     One  of    these    tools 
will    last   several    years   and        <=—/? — ' 
may  be   used    in    hard   soil,         // 
but    the    cheap    trowels    are      // 
generally  hardly 
worth  the   buy- 
^    ing.       One     of 
the  steel   imple- 
31.  Weed-cutter,     ments    may    be 
secured      to     a 

long  handle;  or  the  blade  of  a  broken  trowel  may 
be  utilized  in  the  same  way  (Fig.  27).  A  very 
good  trowel  may  also  be  made  from  a  discarded 


32.     Hand-roller. 


VARIOUS  TOOLS 


33 


blade  of  a  mowing-machine  (Fig.  28),  and  it 
answers  the  purpose  of  a  hand-weeder  in  many 
places. 

Weed -spuds    are    shown    in   Figs.   29,   30,   31. 


33.     Roller  and   marker. 


The   first   is    particularly   serviceable    in    cutting 
docks   and   other   strong   weeds   from   lawns    and 


34.     Roller  and   marker. 


pastures.     It  is  provided  with  a  brace  to  allow  it 
to  be  thrust  into  the  ground  with  the  foot. 

It  is  often  essential  that  the  land  be  compacted 
after  it  has  been  spaded  or  hoed,  and  some  kind 


34 


GENERAL    ADVICE 


of  hand -roller  is  then  useful.  Very  efficient 
iron  rollers  are  in  the  market,  but  a  good  one 

can  be  made  from  a  hard 
chestnut   or   oak   log,   as 
shown    in    Fig.  32.       It 
should      be     remembered 
that    when    the  surface  is 
hard    and    compact,  water 
escapes    from    it    rapidly. 

and  plants  may  suffer  for  moisture  upon  arrival 
of  warm  weather.  The  roller  is  useful  in  two 
wayS — to  compact  the  under -surface,  in  which 


35.     Marking-stick. 


Tool  for  spacing  out 
plants. 


37.     Barrow  rigged  with 
a  marker. 


case  the  surface  should  be  again  loosened  as 
soon  as  the  rolling  is  done ;  and  to  firm  the 
earth  about  seeds  (page  10)  or  the  roots  of 
newly -set  plants. 


MARKERS 


35 


A    marker    may   often    be   combined   with    the 
roller  to  good  advantage,  as  in   Fig.  33.     Ropes 


38.    Hand  sled-marker. 

are  secured   about   the  cylinder  at   proper   inter- 
vals, and   these  mark   the  rows.     Knots   may  be 


39.     Trailing  sled-marker. 

placed  in  the  ropes  to  indicate  the  places  where 
plants  are  to  be  set  or  seeds  dropped.  An  exten- 
sion of  the  same  idea  is  seen  in  Fig.  34,  which 


36 


GENERAL    ADVICE 


shows  iron  or  wooden  pegs  that  make  holes  in 
which  very  small  plants  may  be  set.  An  L- shaped 
rod  projects  at  one  side  to  mark  the  place  of  the 
next  row. 

In  most   instances,  the   best  and   most  expedi- 
tious method  of    marking  out   the  garden  is   by 


40.    Adjustable  sled-marker. 

the  use  of  the  garden  line,  which  is  secured  to  a 
feel  (Fig.  20),  but  various  other  devices  are  often 
useful.  For  very  small  beds,  drills  or  furrows 
may  be  made  by  a  simple  marking -stick  (Fig. 
35).  A  handy  marker  is  shown  in  Fig.  36.  A 
marker  can  be  rigged  to  a  wheel -barrow,  as  in 
Fig.  37.  A  rod  is  secured  underneath  the  front 
truss,  and  from  its  end  an  adjustable  trailer,  B, 
is  hung.  The  wheel  of  the  barrow  marks  the 
row,  and  the  trailer  indicates  the  place  of  the 
next  row,  thereby  keeping  the  rows  parallel.  A 
hand  sled -marker  is  shown  in '  Fig.  38,  and  a 
similar  device  mav  be  secured  to  the  frame  of  a 


HOW    TO    SOW    SEEDS  37 

sulky  cultivator  (Fig.  39)  or  other  wheel  tool. 
A  good  adjustable  sled -marker  is  outlined  in 
Fig.  40. 

SOWING   AND   PLANTING. 

SOWING  THE  SEED.— The  sled -markers  open  a 
furrow  of  sufficient  depth  for  the  planting  of 
most  seeds.  If  marker  furrows  are  not  available, 
a  furrow  may  be  opened  with  a  hoe  for  such  deep- 
planted  seeds  as  peas  and  sweet -peas,  or  by  a 
trowel  or  end  of  a  rake -stale  for  smaller  seeds. 
Plant  when  the  ground  is  moist,  if  possible,  and 
preferably  just  before  a  rain,  if  the  soil  is  of 
such  character  that  it  will  not  bake.  For  shal- 
low-planted seeds,  firm  the  earth  above  them  by 
walking  over  the  row  or  by  patting  it  down  with 
a  hoe.  Care  should  be  exercised  not  to  sow  very 
small  and  slow -germinating  seeds,  as  celery,  car- 
rot, onion,  in  poorly  prepared  soil  or  in  land 
which  bakes.  With  such  seeds  it  is  well  to  sow 
seeds  of  radish  or  turnip,  for  these  germinate 
quickly  and  break  the  crust,  and  also  mark  the 
row  so  that  tillage  may  be  begun  before  the 
regular -crop  seeds  are  up. 

Land  may  be  prevented  from  baking  over  the 
seeds  by  scattering  a  very  thin  layer  of  fine 
litter,  as  chaff,  or  of  sifted  moss  or  mold,  over 
the  row.  A  board  is  sometimes  laid  on  the  row 
to  retain  the  moisture,  but  it  must  be  lifted 
gradually  just  as  soon  as  the  plants  begin  to 


38  GENERAL    ADVICE 

break  the  ground,  or  the  plants  will  be  greatly 
injured.  Wherever  practicable,  seed-beds  of  cel- 
ery and  other  slow -germinating  seeds  should  be 
shaded.  If  the  beds  are  watered,  be  careful  that 
the  soil  is  not  packed  by  the  force  of  the  water 
or  baked  by  the  sun.  In  thickly  sown  seed- 
beds, thin  or  transplant  the  plants  as  soon  as 
they  have  made  their  first  true  leaves. 

For  most  home -grounds,  seeds  may  be  sown  by 
hand,  but  for  large  areas  of  one  crop,  one  of  the 
many  kinds  of  seed -sowers  may  be  used.  The 
particular  methods  of  sowing  seeds  are  specified 
under  the  discussions  of  the  different  plants,  if 
any  other  than  ordinary  treatment  is  required. 
The  depth  at  which  seeds  are  to  be  sown  varies 
with  the  kind,  the  soil  and  its  preparation,  the 
season,  and  whether  they  are  planted  in  the  open 
or  in  the  house.  In  boxes  and  under  glass,  it  is 
a  good  rule  that  the  seed  be  sown  to  a  depth 
equal  to  twice  its  own  diameter,  but  deeper  sow- 
ing is  usually  necessary  out  of  doors,  particu- 
larly in  hot  and  dry  weather.  More  specific  re- 
marks upon  propagation  by  seed  and  otherwise 
may  be  found  in  "The  Nursery -Book." 

TRANSPLANTING  YOUNG  SEEDLINGS. — In  the 
transplanting  of  cabbages,  tomatoes,  flowers,  and 
all  plants  which  are  recently  started  from  seeds, 
it  is  important  that  the  ground  be  thoroughly 
fined  and  compacted.  Plants  usually  live  better 
if  transplanted  into  ground  which  has  been  freshly 


TRANSPLANTING 


39 


turned.  If  possible,  transplant  in  cloudy  or  rainy 
weather,  particularly  if  late  in  the  season.  Firm 
the  earth  snugly 
about  the  roots  with 
the  hands  or  feet, 
in  order  to  bring  up 
the  soil  moisture ; 
but  it  is  generally 
best  to  rake  the 
surface  in  order  to 
establish  the  earth -mulch,  unless  the  plants  are 
so  small  that  their  roots  cannot  reach  through 
the  mulch. 
In  order  to  reduce  the  evaporation  from  the 


41,     Paper  screen  for  newly 
transplanted  plants. 


42.     Shearing  of  plants  when  transplanting. 

plant,  shingles  may  be  stuck  into  the  ground  so 
as  to  shade  the  plant;  or  a  screen  may  be  im- 
provised with  pieces  of  paper  (Fig.  41),  tin  cans, 


40 


GENERAL    ADVICE 


inverted  flower-pots,  coverings  of  brush,  or  other 
means.  It  is  nearly  always  advisable  to  remove 
some  of  the  foliage,  particularly  if  the  plant  has 
several  leaves  and  if  it  has  not  been  grown  in  a 
pot,  and  also  if  the  transplanting  is  done  in 


43.     Cutting  back  or  shearing  the  plants. 


warm  weather.  Fig.  42  shows  a  good  treatment 
for  transplanted  plants.  With  the  foliage  all  left 
on,  the  plants  are  likely  to  behave  as  in  the 
upper  row,  but  with  most  of  it  cut  off,  as  in  the 
lower  row,  there  is  little  wilting,  and  new  leaves 
soon  start.  Fig.  43  also  shows  what  part  of  the 
leaves  may  be  cut  off  on  transplanting.  If  the 


DIBBERS 


41 


soil  is  freshly  turned  and  the  transplanting  is 
well  done,  it  rarely  will  be  necessary  to  water  the 
plants;  but  if  watering  is  necessary,  it  should 


44.    A  serviceable 
dibber. 


45.     Transplanting  by  means 
of  a  dibber. 


be  done  at  nightfall,  and  the  surface  should  be 
loosened  the  next  morning,  or  as  soon  as  it  be- 
comes dry. 

In  the  transplanting  of  young  plants,  some  kind 
of  a  dibber  should  be  used  to  make  the  holes. 


42 


GENERAL    ADVICE 


Dibbers  make  holes  without  removing  any  of  the 
earth.     A  good  form  of   dibber  is  shown  in  Fig. 


44,  which    is    like  a 
Many  persons   prefer 
conical    dibber,    like 

45.  For  hard   soils 
strong     dibber    may 
which    has    a    right- 
serve    as    a    handle, 
softened    by  slipping 


flat  or  plane  trowel, 
a  cylindrical  and 
that  shown  in  Fig. 
and  larger  plants,  a 
be  made  from  a  limb 
angled  branch  to 
This  handle  may  be 
a  piece  of  rubber 


46.    A  home-made 
and  padded  dibber. 


47.     Dibber  and 
crow-bar  combined. 


48.     Strawberry 
planter. 


hose  on  it  (Fig.  46).     A  long  iron  dibber,  which 
may  also    be  used    as  a    crow-bar,   is   shown   in 


DIBBERS 


Fig.  47.  In  transplanting  with  the  dibber,  a 
hole  is  first  made  by  a  thrust  of  the  tool,  and 
the  earth  is  then  pressed  against  the  root  by 


49.     Plunging  pots.        50.    Setting  large  tub-plants  in  the  lawn. 

means  of  the  foot,  hand,  or  the  dibber  itself 
(as  in  Fig.  45).  The  hole  is  not  filled  by  put- 
ting in  dirt  at  the  top. 

For  large  plants,  a  broader  dibber  may  be  used. 
An  implement  like  that  shown  in  Fig.  48  is  use- 
ful for  setting  strawberries  and  other  plants  with 
large  roots.  It  is  made  of  two -inch  plank,  with 
a  block  on  top  to  act  as  foot -rest  and  to  prevent 
the  blade  from  going  too  deep.  In  order  to  pro- 
vide space  for  the  foot  and  to  easily  direct  the 


44  GENERAL    ADVICE 

thrust,  the  handle  may  be  placed  at  one  side  of 
the  middle.  For  plunging  pots,  a  dibber  like 
that  shown  in  Fig.  49  is  useful,  particularly  when 
the  soil  is  so  hard  that  a  long -pointed  tool  is 
necessary.  The  bottom  of  the  hole  may  be  filled 
with  earth  before  the  pot  is  inserted;  but  it  is 
often  advisable  to  leave  the  vacant  space  below 
(as  in  &)  to  provide  drainage,  to  keep  the  plant 
from  rooting,  and  to  prevent  earth-worms  from 
entering  the  hole  in  the  bottom  of  the  pot. 
For  smaller  pots,  the  tool  may  be  inserted  a 
less  depth  (as  at  c). 

TRANSPLANTING  ESTABLISHED  PLANTS  AND 
TREES. — In  setting  potted  plants  out  of  doors, 
it  is  nearly  always  advisable  to  plunge  them, — 
that  is,  to  set  the  pots  into  the  earth, — unless 
the  place  is  very  wet.  The  pots  are  then  watered 
by  the  rainfall,  and  demand  little  care.  If  the 
plants  are  to  be  returned  to  the  house  in  the 
fall,  they  should  not  be  allowed  to  root  through 
the  hole  in  the  pot,  and  the  rooting  may  be 
prevented  by  turning  the  pot  around  every  few 
days.  Large  decorative  plants  may  be  made  to 
look  as  if  growing  naturally  in  the  lawn  by 
sinking  the  pot  or  box  just  below  the  surface 
level  and  rolling  the  sod  over  it,  as  suggested 
in  Fig.  50.  A  space  around  and  below  the  tub 
may  be  provided  to  insure  drainage. 

For  the  shifting  of  very  large  tub -plants,  a 
box  or  tub  with  moveable  sides,  as  in  Fig.  51, 


TRANSPLANTING    TREES 


45 


is  handy  and  efficient.  The  plant -box  recom- 
mended to  parties  who  grew  plants  for  exhibition 
at  the  World's  Fair  is  shown  in  Fig.  52.  It  is 
made  of  strong  boards  or  planks.  At  A  is  shown 
the  inside  of  one  of  two  opposite  sections  or 
sides,  four  feet  wide  at  top,  three  feet  wide  at 
bottom  and  three  feet  high.  The  cleats  are  two- 
by-four  scantlings,  through  which  holes  are  bored 
to  admit  the  bolts  with  which  the  box  is  to  be 
held  together.  B  is  an  outside  view  of  one  of 
the  alternating  sections, 
three  feet  four  inches 
wide  at  top,  two  feet 
four  inches  at  bottom, 
and  three  feet  deep. 
A  one -by -six  strip  is 
nailed  through  the  cen- 
ter to  give  strength. 
C  is  an  end  view  of 
A,  showing  the  bolts 
and  also  a  two-by-four 
cleat  to  which  the  bottom  is  to  be  nailed.  This 
box  was  used  mostly  for  transporting  large 
growing  stock  to  the  exposition,  the  stock  having 
been  dug  from  the  open  and  the  box  secured 
around  the  ball  of  earth. 

Very  large  trees  can  often  be  moved  with  safety. 
It  is  essential  that  the  transplanting  be  done 
when  the  trees  are  perfectly  dormant, — winter 
being  preferable, — that  a  large  mass  of  earth  and 


51.     Plant-box  with  a  move- 
able  side. 


46 


GENERAL    ADVICE 


roots  be  taken  with  the  tree,  and  that  the  top 
be  vigorously  cut  back.  Large  trees  are  often 
moved  in  winter  upon  a  stone -boat,  by  securing 
a  large  ball  of  earth  frozen  about  the  roots. 
This  frozen  ball  is  secured  by  digging  about  the 


52.     Box  for  transporting  large  transplanted  stock. 

tree  for  several  days  in  succession,  so  that  the 
freezing  progresses  with  the  excavation.  A  good 
device  for  moving  such  trees  is  shown  in  Fig. 
53.  The  trunk  of  the  tree  is  securely  wrapped 
with  burlaps  or  other  soft  material,  and  a  ring 
or  chain  is  then  secured  about  it.  A  long  pole, 


-MOVING    LARGE    TREES  47 

&,  is  run  over  the  truck  of  a  wagon  and  the  end 
of  it  is  secured  to  the  chain  or  ring  upon  the  tree. 
This  pole  is  a  lever  for  raising  the  tree  out  of 
the  ground.  A  team  is  hitched  to  a,  and  a  man 
holds  the  pole  6. 

The  following  more  explicit  directions  for  mov- 
ing large  trees  are  by  Edward  Hicks,  who  has  had 
much  experience  in  the  business,  and  who  made 
this  report  to  the  press  a  few  years  ago:  "In 
moving  large  trees,  say  those  ten  to  twelve  inches 
in  diameter  and  twenty -five  to  thirty  feet  high, 
it  is  well  to  prepare  them  by  trimming  and 
cutting  or  sawing  off  the  roots  at  a  proper  dis- 
tance from  the  trunks,  say  six  to  eight  feet, 
in  June.  The  cut  roots  heal  over  and  send  out 
fibrous  roots,  which  should  not  be  injured  more 
than  is  necessary  in  moving  the  trees  next  fall 
or  spring.  Young,  thrifty  maples  and  elms, 
originally  from  the  nursery,  do  not  need  such 
preparation  nearly  as  much  as  other  and  older 
trees.  In  moving  a  tree,  we  begin  by  digging 
a  wide  trench  six  to  eight  feet  from  it,  leaving 
all  possible  roots  fast  to  it.  By  digging  under 
the  tree  in  the  wide  trench,  and  working  the 
soil  out  of  the  roots  by  means  of  round  or 
dull -pointed  sticks,  the  soil  falls  into  the  cavity 
made  under  the  tree.  Three  or  four  men  in  as 
many  hours  could  get  so  much  of  the  soil  away 
from  the  roots  that  it  would  be  safe  to  attach  a 
rope  and  tackle  to  the  upper  part  of  the  trunk 


48 


GENERAL    ADVICE 


and  to  some  adjoining   post  or  tree  for  the   pur- 
pose of  pulling  the  tree  over.     A  good   quantity 
of  bagging  must  be   put  around   the  tree  under 
the  rope   to    prevent   injury,  and  care  should   be 
taken  that  the  pulling  of  the  rope  does  not  split 
off   or     break    a    limb.       A 
team  is    hitched    to  the   end 
of  the  draft  rope,  and  slowly 
driven  in  the  proper  direction 
to    pull    the    tree    over.      If 
the  tree  does  not  readily  tip 
over,  dig  under  and   cut   off 
any  fast  root.      While  it  is 
tipped   over,  work  out  more 
of  the  soil   with   the  sticks. 
Now  pass  a  large 
rope,          double, 
around      a      few 
large   roots   close 
to  the  tree,  leav- 
ing   the   ends   of 
the    rope    turned 

up  by  the  trunk  to  be  used  in  lifting  the  tree 
at  the  proper  time.  Tip  the  tree  in  the  op- 
posite direction  and  put  another  large  rope 
around  the  large  roots  close  to  the  trunk;  remove 
more  soil  and  see  that  no  roots  are  fast  to  the 
ground.  Four  guy -ropes  attached  to  the  upper 
parts  of  the  tree,  as  shown  in  the  cut  (Fig.  54), 
should  be  put  on  properly  and  used  to  prevent 


Moving  a  large  tree. 


MOVING    LARGE    TREES 


49 


the  tree  from  tipping  over  too  far  as  well  as 
to  keep  it  upright.  A  good  deal  of  the  soil 
can  be  put  back  in  the  hole  without  covering 
the  roots,  to  get  it  out  of  the  way  of  the  ma- 
chine. The  latter  can  now  be  placed  about  the 
tree  by  removing  the  front  part,  fastened  by 
four  bolts,  placing  the  frame  with  the  hind 


54.    The  tree  ready  to  lift. 

wheels  around  the  tree  and  replacing  the  front 
parts.  Two  timbers,  three -by -nine  inches,  and 
twenty  feet  long,  are  now  placed  on  the  ground 
under  the  hind  wheels,  and  in  front  of  them, 
parallel  to  each  other,  for  the  purpose  of  keep- 
ing the  hind  wheels  up  out  of  the  big  hole 
when  drawing  the  tree  away ;  and  they  are 
also  used  while  backing  the  hind  wheels  across 
the  new  hole  in  which  the  tree  is  to  be  planted. 

D 


50 


GENERAL    ADVICE 


The  machine  (Figs.  54,  55)  consists  of  a  hind 
axle  twelve  feet  long,  and  broad -tired  wheels. 
The  frame  is  made  of  spruce  three -by -eight 
inches  and  twenty  feet  long.  The  braces  are 
three -by -five  inches  and  ten  feet  long,  and  up- 
right three -by -nine  inches  and  three  feet  high; 


55.    The  tree  ready  to  move. 

these  are  bolted  to  the  hind  axle  and  main  frame. 
The  front  axle  has  a  set  of  blocks  bolted  together 
and  of  sufficient  height  to  support  the  front  end 
of  the  frame.  Into  the  top  timbers,  three -by -six 
inches,  hollows  are  cut  at  the  proper  distances 
to  receive  the  ends  of  two  locust  rollers.  A 
windlass  or  winch  is  put  at  each  end  of  the 
frame,  by  which  trees  can  easily  and  steadily  be 
lifted  and  lowered,  the  large  double  ropes  pass- 


MOVING    LARGE    TREES  51 

ing  over  the  rollers  to  the  windlasses.  A  locust 
boom  is  put  across  the  machine  under  the  frame 
and  above  the  braces;  iron  pins  hold  it  in  place. 
The  side  guy -ropes  are  made  fast  to  the  ends  of 
this  boom.  The  other  guy -ropes  are  made  fast 
to  the  front  and  rear  parts  of  the  machine.  Four 
rope  loops  are  made  fast  inside  of  the  frame,  and 
are  so  placed  that  by  passing  a  rope  around  the 
trunk  of  the  tree  and  through  the  loops  two  or 
three  times,  a  rope  ring  is  made  around  the  tree 
that  will  keep  the  trunk  in  the  middle  of  the 
frame  and  not  allow  it  to  hit  either  the  edges  or 
the  rollers — a  very  necessary  safeguard.  As  the 
tree  is  slowly  lifted  by  the  windlasses,  the  guy- 
ropes  are  loosened,  as  needed.  The  tree  will 
pass  obstructions,  such  as  trees  by  the  roadside, 
but  in  doing  so  it  is  better  to  lean  the  tree  back- 
ward. When  the  tree  has  arrived  at  its  new 
place,  the  two  timbers  are  placed  along  the  oppo- 
site edges  of  the  hole  so  that  the  hind  wheels 
can  be  backed  over  it.  The  tree  is  then  lowered 
to  the  proper  depth,  and  made  plumb  by  the 
guy -ropes,  and  good,  mellow  soil  is  thrown  in 
and  packed  well  into  all  the  cavities  under  the 
roots.  When  the  hole  is  half  filled,  several  bar- 
rels of  water  should  be  poured  in;  this  will 
wash  the  soil  into  the  cavities  under  the  center 
of  the  tree  much  better.  When  the  water  has 
settled  away,  fill  in  and  pack  the  soil  till  the 
hole  is  little  more  than  full.  Leave  a  depression, 


52 


GENERAL    ADVICE 


so  that  all  the  rain  that  may  fall  will  be  retained. 
The  tree  should  now  be  judiciously  trimmed  "and 
the  machine  removed.  Five  men  can  take  up, 
move  and  plant  a  tree  in  a  day,  if  the  distance 


(, 


56.     Tree  well  planted. 


57.     Tree  not  well  planted. 


is  short  and  the  digging  not  too  hard.  The  tree 
should  be  properly  wired  to  stakes  to  prevent  the 
wind  from  blowing  it  over.  The  front  part  of 
the  machine  is  a  part  of  our  platform  spring 
market -wagon,  while  the  hind  wheels  are  from  a 
wood -axle  wagon.  A  tree  ten  inches  in  diame- 


PRUNING    THE    TOPS 


53 


ter,  with  some  dirt  adhering  to  its  roots,  will 
weigh  a  ton  or  more." 

In  the  planting  of  any  tree  or  bush,  the  roots 
should  be  cut  back  beyond  all  breaks  and  serious 
bruises,  and  the  earth  should  be 
thoroughly  filled  in  and  firmed 
about  them,  as  in  Fig.  56.  No 
implement  is  so 
good  as  the  fin- 
gers for  working 
the  soil  about 
the  roots.  If  the 
tree  has  many 
roots,  work  it  up 
and  down  slightly 
several  times  dur- 
ing the  filling  of 

58.   Pruned  tree.     tlie    hole>  to     Settle    59.    Pruned  tree. 

the  earth  in  place. 

When  the  earth  is  thrown  in  carelessly,  the 
roots  are  jammed  together,  and  often  an  empty 
place  is  left  beneath  the  crown,  as  in  Fig.  57, 
which  causes  the  roots  to  dry  out. 

The  marks  upon  the  tops  of  these  trees  in/  Figs. 
56  and  57  show  where  the  branches  should  be  cut 
off.  See  also  Fig.  66.  Figs.  58  and  59  show 
the  tops  of  trees  after  pruning.  Strong,  branchy 
trees,  as  apples,  pears  and  ornamental  trees,  are 
usually  headed  back  in  this  way,  upon  planting. 
If  the  tree  has  one  straight  leader  and  many  or 


54 


GENERAL    ADVICE 


several  slender   branches    (Fig.  60),  it  is  usually 
pruned  as  in  Fig.  61,  each  branch  being  cut  back 


Peach  tree. 


Peach  tree  pruned 
for  planting. 


to  one  or  two  buds.  If  there  are  no  branches, 
or  very  few  of  them, — in  which  case  there  will 
be  good  buds  upon  the  main  stem, — the  leader 


WHEN    TO    PLANT  55 

may  be  cut  back  a  third  or  half  its  length,  to  a 
mere  whip.  Ornamental/ bushes  with  long  tops 
are  usually  cut  back  a  third  or  a  half  when  set, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  150.  Full  discussions  of  both 
pruning  and  training  may  be  found  in  "  The  Prun- 
ing-Book." 

In  general,  it  is  best  to  set  all  hardy  plants  in 
the  fall,  particularly  if  the  soil  is  fairly  dry  and 
the  exposure  is  not  too  bleak.  To  this  class 
belong  most  of  the  fruit  trees  and  ornamental 
trees  and  shrubs;  also  hardy  herbs,  like  colum- 
bines, peonies,  lilies,  bleeding -hearts,  and  the  like. 
They  should  be  planted  as  soon  as  they  are  thor- 
oughly mature,  so  that  the  leaves  *begin  to  fall 
naturally.  If  any  leaves  remain  upon  the  tree 
or  bush  at  planting  time,  strip  them  off,  unless 
the  plant  is  an  evergreen.  It  is  generally  best 
aot  to  cut  back  fall -plan  ted  trees  to  the  full 
extent  desired,  but  to  shorten  them  in  three- 
fourths  of  the  required  amount  in  the  fall,  and 
take  off  the  remaining  fourth  in  the  spring,  so 
that  no  dead  or  dry  tips  are  left  upon  the  plant. 
Evergreens,  as  pines  and  spruces,  are  not  headed- 
in  much,  and  usually  not  at  all.  All  tender 
and  very  small  plants  should  be  set  in  the  spring, 
in  which  case  very  early  planting  is  desirable. 

In  well -compacted  land,  trees  and  shrubs  should 
be  set  at  about  the  same  depth  as  they  stood  in 
the  nursery,  but  if  the  land  has  been  deeply 
trenched  or  if  it  is  loose  from  other  causes,  the 


56 


GENERAL    ADVICE 


plants  should  be  set  deeper,  because  the  earth 
will  probably  settle.  The  hole  should  be  filled 
with  fine  surface  earth.  It  is  generally  not  ad- 


62.     Plarting-board. 

visable  to  place  manure  in  the  hole,  but  if  it  is 
used  it  should  be  of  small  amount  and  very 
thoroughly  mixed  with  the  earth,  else  it  will  cause 
the  soil  to  dry  out.  In  lawns  and  other  places 
where  surface  tillage  cannot  be  given,  a  light 
mulch  of  litter  or  manure  may  be  placed  about 


Device  for  locating  the  tree. 

the  plants;  but  the  earth -mulch  (page  8),  when 
it  can  be  secured,  is  much  the  best  conserver  of 
moisture. 

In  order  to  set  trees  in  rows,  it  is  necessary  to 
use  a  garden  line  (Fig.  20),  or  to  mark  out  the 
ground  with  some  of  the  devices  already  described 
(Figs.  33-40) ;  or  in  large  areas,  the  place  may  be 


MAKING    THE    ROWS    STRAIGHT 


57 


staked  out.*  There  are  various  devices  for  locat- 
ing the  place  of  the  stake  after  the  stake  has  been 
removed  and  the  hole  dug.  One  of  the  simplest 
and  best  is  shown  in  Fig.  62.  It  is  a  simple  nar- 
row and  thin  board  with  a  notch  in  the  center  and 


64.     Setting  trees  to  a  line. 


a  peg  in  either  end,  one  of  the  pegs  being  sta- 
tionary. The  implement  is  so  placed  that  the 
notch  meets  the  stake;  then  one  end  of  it  is 
thrown  out  of  the  way  until  the  hole  is  dug. 
When  the  implement  is  brought  again  to  its  origi- 
nal position,  the  notch  marks  the  place  of  the 

*Very  full  directions  for  laying  out  orchards  are  given  in  "  Principles 
of  Fruit-Growing. " 


58 


GENERAL    ADVICE 


stake  and  the  tree.  Fig.  63  is  a  device  with  a  lid, 
in  the  end  of  which  is  a  notch  to  mark  the  place 
of  the  stake.  This  lid  is  thrown  back,  as  shown 
by  the  dotted  lines,  when  the  hole  is  being  dug. 
Fig.  64  shows  a  method  of  bringing  trees  in  row 
by  measuring  from  a  line. 


WINTER  PROTECTION  OF  PLANTS. 

If  the  ground  is  not  ready  for  planting  in  the 
fall,  or  if  it  is  desired  to  delay  until  spring,  the 
trees  or  bushes  may  be  heeled -in,  as  illustrated  in 
Fig.  65.  The  roots  are  laid  in  a  furrow  or  trench, 
and  are  covered  with  well -firmed  earth.  Straw 
or  manure  may  be  thrown  over  the  earth  to  still 
further  protect  the  roots,  but  if  it  is  thrown  over 
the  tops  mice  may  be  attracted  by  it  and  the  trees 


65.    Trees  heeled -in  for  the  winter. 


MOUNDING    AND    MULCHING 


59 


be  girdled.  Tender  trees  or  bushes  may  be 
lightly  covered  to  the  tips  with  earth.  Plants 
should  be  heeled -in  only  in  loose,  warm,  loamy 
or  sandy  soil  and  in  a  well -drained  place. 

Fall -planted  trees  should  generally  be  mounded 
up,   sometimes   even   as     high    as 
shown  'in   Fig.  66.      This    hilling 
holds  the  tree  in   position,  carries 
off    the  water,  prevents   too   deep 
freezing,     and     holds     the     earth 
from     heaving.       The   mound    is 
taken    away    in    the   spring.       It 
is  sometimes  advisable   to  mound 
up    established   trees   in   the   fall, 
but     on    well -drained     land     the    66.    Tree  earthed 
practice  is  not   usually  necessary.      up  for  wmter- 
In    hilling   trees,    pains   should   be   taken   not   to 
leave  deep  holes,  from  which  the  earth  was  dug, 
close   to   the   tree,  for  water  collects  in   them. 

It  is  always  advisable  to  mulch  plants  which  are 
set  in  the  fall.  Any  loose  and  dry  material — as 
straw,  manure,  leaves,  leaf -mold,  litter  from  yards 
and  stables,  pine  boughs — may  be  used  for  this 
purpose.  Very  strong  or  compact  manures,  as 
that  in  which  there  is  little  straw  or  litter,  should 
be  avoided.  The  ground  may  be  covered  to  a 
depth  of  five  or  six  inches,  or  even  a  foot  or  more 
if  the  material  is  loose.  Avoid  throwing  strong 
manure  directly  upon  the  crown  of  the  plants, 
especially  of  herbs,  for  the  materials  which  leach 


60  GENERAL    ADVICE 

from   the    manure    sometimes    injure    the    crown 
buds  and  the  roots. 

This  protection  may  also  be  given  to  established 
plants,  particularly  to  those  which,  like  roses  and 
herbaceous  plants,  are  expected  to  give  a  profusion 
of  bloom  the  following  year.  This  mulch  affords 
not  only  winter  protection,  but  is  an  efficient 
means  of  fertilizing  the  land.  A  large  part  of 
the  plant -food  materials  have  leached  out  of  the 
mulch  by  spring,  and  have  become  incorporated  in 
the  soil,  where  the  plant  makes  ready  use  of  them. 
Mulches  also  serve  a  most  useful  purpose  in  pre- 
venting the  ground  from  packing  and  baking  from 
the  weight  of  snows  and  rains,  and  the  cementing 
action  of  too  much  water  in  the  surface  soil.  In 
the  spring,  the  coarser  parts  of  the  mulch  may  be 
removed,  and  the  finer  parts  spaded  or  hoed  into 
the  ground. 

Tender  bushes  and  small  trees  may  be  wrapped 
up  with  straw,  hay,  burlaps,  or  pieces  of  matting 
or  carpet.  Even  rather  large  trees,  like  bearing 
peach  trees,  are  often  baled  up  in  this  way,  or 
sometimes  with  corn  fodder,  although  the  results 
in  the  protection  of  fruit  buds  are  not  often  very 
satisfactory.  It  is  important  that  no  grain  is  left 
in  the  baling  material,  else  mice  may  be  attracted 
to  it.  It  should  be  known,  too,  that  the  object  in 
tying  up  or  baling  plants  is  not  so  much  to  pro- 
tect from  direct  cold  as  to  mitigate  the  effects  of 
alternate  freezing  and  thawing,  and  to  protect 


WINTER    PROTECTION  61 

from  drying  winds.  Plants  may  be  wrapped  so 
thick  and  tight  as  to  injure  them.  Be  sure  that 
no  water  stands  about  the  roots  of  tender  trees, 
and  cover  the  surrounding  ground  with  a  heavy 
mulch  of  leaves  or  straw.  The  labor  of  protecting 
large  plants  is  often  great  and  the  results  uncer- 
tain, and  in  most  cases  it  is  a  question  if  more 
satisfaction  could  not  be  obtained  by  growing 
only  hardy  trees  and  shrubs. 

The  objection  to  covering  tender  woody  plants 
cannot  be  urged  with  equal  force  against  tender 


67.     Covering  plants  with  a  box. 

herbs  or  very  low  bushes,  for  these  are  protected 
with  ease.  Even  the  ordinary  mulch  may  afford 
sufficient  protection;  and  if  the  tops  kill  back,  the 
plant  quickly  renews  itself  from  the  base,  and  in 
many  plants, — as  in  most  hybrid  perpetual  roses,— 
the  best  bloom  is  upon  these  new  growths  of  the 
season.  Old  boxes  or  barrels  may  be  used  to  pro- 
tect tender  low  plants  (Figs.  67,  68).  The  box  is 
filled  with  leaves  or  dry  straw,  and  either  left 


62  GENERAL    ADVICE 

open  on  top  or  covered  with  boards,  boughs  or 
even  with  burlaps  (Fig.  68). 

The  tops  of  plants  may  be  laid  down  for  the 
winter.  Fig.  69  shows  a  method  of  laying  down 
blackberries,  as  practiced  in  the  Hudson  River 
Valley.  The  plants  were  tied  to  a  trellis,  as  the 
method  is  in  that  country,  two  wires  (a,  6)  having 
been  run  upon  either  side  of  the  row.  The  posts 
are  hinged  on  a  pivot  to  a  short  post  (c),  and  are 
held  in  position  by  a  brace 
(d) .  The  entire  trellis  is 
then  laid  down  upon  the  ap- 
proach of  winter,  as  shown 
in  the  illustration.  The 
blackberry  tops  are  so  strong 
that  they  hold  the  wires  up 
from  the  ground,  even  when 

68,    Protecting  plants       the    trellig   ig   laid    down<      To 
with  a  barrel.  -11-1,1  •  i 

hold   the  wires  close   to   the 

earth,  stakes  are  thrust  over  them  in  a  slanting 
position,  as  shown  at  n  n.  The  snow  which 
drifts  through  the  plants  ordinarily  affords  suffi- 
cient protection  for  plants  which  are  as  hardy 
as  grapes  and  berries.  In  fact,  the  plants  may 
be  uninjured  even  without  cover,  since,  in  their 
prostrate  position,  they  escape  the  cold  and  dry- 
ing winds. 

In  severe  climates,  or  in  the  case  of  tender 
plants,  the  tops  should  be  covered  with  straw, 
boughs  or  litter,  as  recommended  for  regular 


LAYING    DOWN    PLANTS 


63 


mulch -covers.  Sometimes  a  V-shaped  trough 
made  from  two  boards  is  placed  over  the  stems 
of  long  or  vine -like  plants  which  have  been  laid 
down.  All  plants  with  slender  or  more  or  less 
pliant  stems  can  be  laid  down  with  ease.  With 


•q 


69.    Laying  down  trellis-grown  blackberries. 


such  protection,  figs  can  be  grown  in  the  northern 
states.  Peach  and  other  fruit  trees  may  be  so 
trained  as  to  be  tipped  over  and  covered.  For  an 
account  of  the  method,  see  "Principles  of  Fruit- 
Growing." 

Laid -down  plants  are  often  injured  by  the  reten- 
tion of  the  covering  too  late  in  the  spring.  The 
ground  warms  up  early,  and  may  start  the  buds 
on  parts  of  the  buried  plants,  and  these  tender 
buds  may  be  broken  when  the  plants  are  raised, 


64  GENERAL    ADVICE 

or  injured  by  sun,  wind  or  frost.  The  plants 
should  be  raised  while  the  wood  and  buds  are 
still  hard  and  dormant. 

Inasmuch  as  dark  colors  absorb  heat,  and  light 
colors  reflect  it,  Whitten,  of  the  Missouri  Experi- 
ment Station  (Bulletin  38),  was  led  to  try  the 
effects  of  whitewashing  peach  trees  for  the  pur- 
pose of  preventing  the  premature  swelling  of  the 
buds.  The  results  were  marked  and  satisfactory. 
The  following  quotations  explain  the  method  and 
results:  "The  expense  of  whitening  is  not  great. 
A  common  lime  whitewash  was  at  first  used,  but 
it  washed  off  badly  during  rainy  weather.  Finally 
a  whitewash  of  lime,  with  one -fifth  skim  milk 
added  to  the  water,  was  tried  with  much  more 
satisfactory  results.  .About  one  pound  of  salt  was 
also  dissolved  in  each  bucketful  of  the  whitewash. 
Four  applications  of  this  wash,  applied  during  the 
winter  and  spring,  are  sufficient  to  keep  the  peach 
trees  thoroughly  whitened.  The  first  whitening 
should  be  done  early  in  winter,  shortly  before 
Christmas.  The  wash  may  be  sprayed  on  with 
almost  any  kind  of  a  spray  pump.  We  found  the 
Bordeaux  nozzle  to  be  satisfactory,  as  a  solid 
stream  could  readily  be  turned  on  if  the  lime 
clogged  the  nozzle.  The  whitening  should  be 
repeated  as  often  as  the  lime  is  washed  off  by 
rains.  A  good  wash,  however,  will  adhere  well 
for  weeks.  The  trees  need  two  sprayings  to  begin 
with,  just  as  wood  needs  two  coats  of  paint  in 


WHITEWASHING    TREES  65 

order  to  cover  it  well.  Two  subsequent  sprayings 
are  sufficient.  The  whitewash  should  be  made  as 
thick  as  can  be  sprayed  through  a  Bordeaux  noz- 
zle. We  used  a  small  bucket  spray  pump,  and 
applied  about  one -half  a  bucketful  to  a  tree  at 
each  spraying.  The  time  required  to  apply  the 
whitewash  will  vary  from  five  to  ten  minutes, 
according  to  the  kind  of  pump  and  to  the  size  of 
the  trees.  The  more  trees  that  are  sprayed,  the 
cheaper  it  can  be  done  per  tree.  Altogether,  the 
cost  need  not  exceed  ten  cents  per  tree  for  the 
winter." 

Following  is  a  summary  of  the  results: 

"In  this  latitude,  winter -killing  of  the  fruit- 
buds  of  the  peach  is  usually  due  to  the  unfavor- 
able effects  of  freezing  after  they  have  been  stimu- 
lated into  growth  by  warm  weather,  during  win- 
ter or  early  spring. 

"This  early  swelling  and  growth  of  the  buds  is 
due  to  the  warmth  they  receive,  is  practically  inde- 
pendent of  root  action,  and  may  take  place  on 
warm,  sunny  days  in  winter,  while  the  roots  are 
frozen  and  dormant. 

"Peach  fruit -buds  may  safely  endure  a  tempera- 
ture of  ten_or  twenty  degrees  below  zero,  provided 
they  mature  well  in  autumn,  are  entirely  dormant, 
and  the  cold  comes  on  gradually. 

"Zero  weather  may  kill  fruit -buds  that  have 
swollen  during  previous  warm  days,  or  that  were 
not  properly  ripened  in  autumn, 


66  GENERAL    ADVICE 

"Shading  or  whitening  peach  trees  to  prevent 
their  absorbing  heat  on  sunny  days,  opposes 
growth  of  the  buds  and  is,  consequently,  a  pro- 
tective measure. 

"Shading  the  trees  with  board  sheds  enabled 
peach  buds  to  survive  the  winter  uninjured,  when 
eighty  per  cent  of  unprotected  buds  were  killed. 
Trees  protected  in  this  way  blossomed  later, 
remained  in  bloom  longer,  set  more  fruit  in  pro- 
portion to  the  number  of  apparently  perfect 
flowers,  and  held  their  fruit  better  than  any  other 
trees  on  the  station  grounds.  This  is  the  most 
effective  means  of  winter  protection  tried  at  the 
station,  but  it  is  probably  too  expensive  for  com- 
mercial orchards. 

"Whitening  the  twigs  and  buds  by  spraying 
them  with  whitewash  is,  on  account  of  its  cheap- 
ness and  beneficial  effects,  the  most  promising 
method  of  winter  protection  tried  at  ^this  station. 

"Whitened  buds  remained  practically  dormant 
until  April,  when  unprotected  buds  swelled  per- 
ceptibly during  warm  days  late  in  February  and 
early  in  March.  Whitened  buds  blossomed  three 
to  six  days  later  than  unprotected  buds.  Eighty 
per  cent  of  whitened  buds  passed  the  winter 
safely,  when  only  twenty  per  cent  of  unwhitened 
buds  passed  the  winter  unharmed. 

"Thermometers  covered  with  purple  material 
registered,  during  bright,  sunny  weather,  from  ten 
to  over  twenty  degrees  .higher  than  thermometers 


GETTING  PLANTS  EARLY          67 

covered  with  white  material  of  similai  texture, 
thus  indicating  that  whitened  peach  twigs  might 
be  expected  to  absorb  much  less  heat  than  those 
that  were  not  whitened." 

THE    FORCING    OF    PLANTS 

There  are  three  general  means  of  forcing  plants 
ahead  of  their  season  in  the  early  spring — by 
means  of  hand  boxes  and  forcing -hills,  by  cold- 
frames,  and  by  hotbeds. 

The  forcing -hill  is  an  arrangement  by  means  of 
wliich  a  single  plant  or  a  single  hill  of  plants  may 
be  forced  where  it  permanently  stands.  This  type 
of  forcing  may  be  applied  to  perennial  plants,  as 
rhubarb  and  asparagus,  or 
to  annuals,  as  melons  and 
cucumbers.  Fig.  70  illus- 
trates a  common  method 
of  hastening  the  growth 
of  rhubarb  in  the  spring. 
A  box  made  with  four 
removable  sides,  two  of 
which  are  shown  in  end 
section  in  the  figure,  is 

,         ,  ,      , .  70.    Forcing  of  rhubarb. 

placed    around    the    plant 

in  the  fall.  The  inside  of  the  box  is  filled  with 
straw  or  litter,  and  the  outside  is  banked  thor- 
oughly with  any  refuse,  to  prevent  the  ground  from 
freezing.  When  it  is  desired  to  start  the  plants, 
the  covering  is  removed  from  both  the  inside  and 


68 


GENERAL    ADVICE 


outside  of  the  box,  and  hot  manure  is  piled  around 
the  box  to  its  top.  If  the  weather  is  still  cold, 
dry  light  leaves  or  straw  may  be  placed  inside  the 
box,  or  a  pane  or  sash  of  glass  may  be  placed  on 
top  of  the  box,  to  answer  the  purpose  of  a  cold- 
frame.  Rhubarb,  asparagus,  sea -kale  and  similar 
plants  may  be  advanced  from  two  to  four  weeks 
by  means  of  this  method  of  forcing.  Some  gar- 
deners use  old  barrels  or  half -barrels  in  place  of 


71.     Forcing-hill. 

the  box.     The  box,  however,  is  better  and  handier, 
and  the  sides  can  be  stored  for  future  use. 

Plants  which  require  a  long  season  in  which  to 
mature,  and  which  do  not  transplant  readily,  as 
melons  and  cucumbers,  may  be  planted  in  forcing- 
hills  in  the  field.  One  of  these  hills  is  shown  in 
Fig.  71.  The  frame  or  mold  is  shown  at  the 
left.  This  mold  is  a  box  with  flaring  sides  and 
no  top  or  bottom,  and  provided  with  a  handle. 
This  frame  is  placed  with  the  small  end  down  at 
the  point  where  the  seeds  are  to  be  planted,  and 
the  earth  is  hilled  up  about  it  and  firmly  packed 
with  the  feet.  The  mold  is  then  withdrawn,  and 
a  pane  of  glass  is  laid  upon  the  top  of  the  mound 


FORCING -HILLS  69 

to  concentrate  the  sun's  rays,  and  to  prevent  the 
bank  from  washing  down  with  the  rains.  A  clod 
of  earth  or  a  stone  may  be  placed  upon  the  pane 
to  hold  it  down.  This  type  of  forcing -hill  is  not 
much  used,  because  the  bank  of  earth  is  apt  to 
wash  away,  and  heavy  rain  coming  up  when  the 
glass  is  off  will  fill  the  hill  with  water  and  drown 
the  plant.  However,  it  can  be  used  to  very  good 
advantage  in  cases  where  the  gardener  can  give  it 
close  attention. 

A  forcing -hill  is  sometimes  made  by  digging  a 
hole  in  the  ground  and  planting  the  seeds  in  the 


bottom  of  it,  placing  the  pane  of  glass  upon  a 
slight  ridge  or  mound  which  is  made  upon  the 
surface  of  the  ground.  This  method  is  less 
desirable  than  the  other,  because  the  seeds  are 
placed  in  the  poorest  and  coldest  soil,  and  the 
hole  is  very  apt  to  fill  with  water  in  the  early  days 
of  spring. 

An  excellent  type  of  forcing -hill  is  made  by  the 


70 


GENERAL    ADVICE 


use  of  the  hand -box,  as  shown  in  Fig.  72.  This 
is  a  rectangular  box,  without  top  or  bottom,  and 
a  pane  of  glass  is  slipped  into  a  groove  at  the  top. 
It  is  really  a  miniature  coldframe.  The  earth  is 
banked  up  slightly  about  the  box,  in  order  to  hold 
it  against  winds  and  to  prevent  the  water  from 
running  into  it.  If  these  boxes  are  made  of  good 
lumber  and  painted,  they  will  last  for  many  years. 
Any  size  of  glass  may  be  used  which  is  desired, 
but  a  ten-by-twelve  pane  is  as  good  as  any  for 
general  purposes. 

After  the  plants  are  thoroughly  established  in 
these  forcing -hills,  and  the  weather  is  settled,  the 
protection  is  wholly  removed,  and  the  plants  grow 
normally  in  the  open. 

A  very  good  temporary  protection  may  be  given 
to  tender  plants  by  using  four  panes  of  glass,  as 
explained  in  Fig.  73, 
the  two  inner  panes 
being  held  together  at 
the  top  by  a  block  of 
wood  through  which 
four  nails  are  driven. 
Plants  are  more  likely 
to  burn  in  these  glass 
frames  than  in  the  hand- 
boxes,  and  such  frames 
are  not  so  well  adapted  to  the  protection  of  plants 
in  very  early  spring ;  but  they  are  often  useful 
for  special  purposes. 


73.     Panes  of  glass  used 
for  a  forcing-hill. 


COLDFRAMES  71 

In  all  forcing -hills,  as  in  coldframes  and  hot- 
beds, it  is  exceedingly  important  that  the  plants 
receive  plenty  of  air  upon  bright  days.  Plants 
which  are  kept  too  close  become  weak  or  "drawn," 
and  lose  the  ability  to  withstand  changes  of 
weather  when  the  protection  is  removed.  Even 
though  the  wind  is  cold  and  raw,  the  plants  inside 
the  frames  will  ordinarily  not  suffer  if  the  glass 
is  taken  off  when  the  sun  is  shining. 

COLDFRAMES. — A  coldframe  is  nothing  more 
than  an  enlarged  hand -box ;  that  is,  instead  of 
protecting  but  a  single  plant  or  a  single  hill  with  a 
single  pane  of  glass,  it  is  covered  with  sash,  and 
is  large  enough  to  accommodate  many  plants. 
There  are  three  general  purposes  for  which  a 
coldframe  is  used:  For  the  starting  of  plants 
early  in  spring ;  for  receiving  partially  hardened 
plants  which  have  been  started  earlier  in  hotbeds 
and  forcing -houses ;  for  wintering  young  cab- 
bages, lettuce  and  other  hardy  plants  which  are 
sown  in  the  fall. 

Coldframes  are  ordinarily  placed  near  the  build- 
ings, and  the  plants  are  transplanted  into  the 
field  when  settled  weather  comes.  Sometimes, 
however,  they  are  made  directly  in  the  field  where 
the  plants  are  fo  remain,  and  the  frames,  and  not 
the  plants,  are  removed.  When  used  for  this  lat- 
ter purpose,  the  frames  are  made  very  cheap  by 
running  two  rows  of  parallel  planks  through 
the  field  at  a  distance  apart  of  six  feet.  The 


72 


GENERAL    ADVICE 


plank  upon  the  north  is  ordinarily  ten  to  twelve 
inches  wide,  and  that  upon  the  south  eight  to  ten 
inches.  These  planks  are  held  in  place 
by  stakes,  and  the  sashes  are  laid 
across  them.  Seeds  of  radishes,  beets, 
lettuce,  and  the  like,  are  then 
sown  beneath  the  sash,  and 
when  settled  weather 
arrives  the  sash  and 
planks  are  removed 
and  the  plants  are 
growing  naturally  in 
the  field.  Half-hardy 
plants,  like  those  men- 
tioned, may  be  started 
fully  two  or  three 
weeks  in  advance  of 
the  normal  season  by  this  means. 

One  of  the  simplest  types  of  coldframes  is 
shown  in  Fig.  74,  which  is  a  lean-to  against  the 
foundation  of  a  house.  A  sill  is  run  just  above 
the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  the  sashes,  shown 
at  D,  are  laid  upon  rafters  which  run  from  this  sill 
to  the  sill  of  the  house,  A.  If  this  frame  is  upon 
the  south  side  of  the  building,  plants  may  be 
started  even  as  early  as  a  month  before  the  open- 
ing of  the  season.  Such  lean-to  frames  are  some- 
times made  against  greenhouses  or  warm  cellars, 
and  heat  is  supplied  to  them  by  the  opening  of  a 
door  in  the  wall,  as  at  B.  In  frames  which  are  in 


74.     Coldframe 
against  a  building. 


LEAN-TO    COLDFRAMES 


73 


such  sunny  positions  as  these,  it  is  exceedingly 
important  that  care  be  taken  to  remove  the  sash, 
or  at  least  to  give  ample  ventilation,  upon  all 
sunny  days. 

A  different  type  of  lean-to  structure  is  shown 
in  Fig.  75.  This  may  be  either  a  temporary  or 
permanent  building,  and  it  is  generally  used  for 


75.    Coldframe,  or  weather  screen,  against  a  building. 

the  protection  of  half-hardy  plants  which  are 
grown  in  pots  and  tubs.  It  may  be  used,  however, 
for  the  purpose  of  forwarding  pot -plants  early  in 
the  spring  and  for  the  protection  of  peaches, 
grapes,  oranges  or  other  fruits  in  tubs  or  boxes. 
If  it  is  desired  to  simply  protect  the  plants  through 
the  winter,  it  is  best  to  have  the  structure  upon  the 


74  GENERAL    ADVICE 

north  side  of  the  building,  in  order  that  the  sun 
may  not  force  the  plants  into  activity. 

The  common  type  of  coldframe  is  shown  in  Fig. 
76.  It  is  twelve  feet  long  and  six  feet  wide,  and 
is  covered  with  four  three-by-six  sash.  It  is  made 
of  ordinary  lumber  loosely  nailed  together.  If 
one  expects  to  use  coldframes  or  hotbeds  every 
year,  however,  it  is  advisable  to  make  the  frames 
of  two -inch  stuff,  well  painted,  and  to  join  the 
parts  by  bolts  and  tenons,  so  that  they  may  be 
taken  apart  and  stored  until  needed  for  the  next 
year's  crop.  Fig.  77  suggests  a  method  of  mak- 
ing the  frames  so  that  they  may  be  taken  apart. 

It  is  always  advisable  to  place  coldframes  and 
hotbeds  in  a  protected  place,  and  especially  to 
protect  them  from  cold  north  winds.  Buildings 
afford  excellent  protection,  but  the  sun  is  some- 
times too  hot  upon  the  south  side  of  large  and 


76.    A  coldframe. 


light  -colored  buildings.  One  of  the  best  means 
of  protection  is  to  plant  a  hedge  of  evergreens,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  78.  It  is  always  desirable,  also,  to 


PORTABLE    COLDFRAMES  75 

place  all  the  coldframes  and  hotbeds  close  together, 
for  the  purpose  of  economizing  time  and  labor. 

Various  small  and  portable  coldframes  may  be 
used  about  the  garden  for  the  protection  of  ten- 
der plants  or  to  start  them  early  in  the  spring. 
Pansies,  daisies  and  border  carnations,  for  ex- 
ample, may  be  brought  on  very  early  by  setting 
such  frames  over  them  or  by  planting  them  under 
the  frames  in  the  fall.  These  frames  may  be  of 
any  size  desired,  and  the  sash  may  be  either  re- 


77.     A  method  of  making  a  frame. 

movable,  or,  in  case  of  small  frames,  they  may  be 
hinged  at  the  top,  Figs.  79-82  illustrate  various 
types  of  handy  frames. 

HOTBEDS. — A  hotbed  differs  from  a  coldframe 
in  having  artificial  bottom  heat.  This  heat  is 
ordinarily  supplied  by  means  of  fermenting  ma- 
nure, but  it  may  be  obtained  from  other  ferment- 
ing material,  as  tan -bark  or  leaves,  or  from  arti- 
ficial heat,  as  flues,  steam  pipes  or  water  pipes. 
The  hotbed  is  used  for  the  very  early  starting  of 
plants,  and  when  the  plants  have  outgrown  the 
bed,  or  have  become  too  thick,  they  are  trans- 


76 


GENERAL    ADVICE 


planted    into   cooler   hotbeds  or   into    eoldframes. 
There  are  many  crops,  however,  which  are  carried 


78.     Coldframe  against  a  hedge,  and  protected  by  straw  mats. 

to  full  maturity  in  the  hotbed  itself,  as  radishes 
and  lettuce.  The  date  at  which  the  hotbed  may 
be  started  with  safety  depends  almost  entirely 
upon  the  means  at  command  of  heating  it  and 
upon  the  skill  of  the  operator.  In  the  northern 
states,  where  outdoor  gardening  does  not  begin 
until  the  first  or  the  last  of  May,  hotbeds  are 
sometimes  started  as  early  as  January;  but  they 
are  ordinarily  delayed  until  early  in  March. 

The  heat  for  hotbeds  is  commonly  supplied  by 
the  fermentation  of  horse  manure.  It  is  impor- 
tant that  the  manure  be  as  uniform  as  possible 


HOTBEDS 


77 


in  composition  and  texture,  that  it  come  from 
highly -fed  horses,  and  is  practically  of  the  same 
age.  The  best  results 
are  generally  obtained 
from  manure  from  liv- 
ery stables,  from  which 
it  can  be  obtained  in 
large  quantities  in  a 
short  space  of  time. 
Perhaps  as  much  as 
one -half  of  the  whole 
material  should  be  of  litter  or  straw  which  has 
been  used  in  the  bedding.  The  manure  is  piled 
in  a  long  and  shallow  square -topped  pile,  not 


79.     Portable  coldframe. 


80.     Portable  coldframe. 

more  than  four  or  six  feet  high  as  a  rule,  and  is 
then  allowed  to  ferment.  Better  results  are  gen- 
erally obtained  if  the  manure  is  piled  under  cover. 
If  the  weather  is  cold  and  fermentation  does  not 
start  readily,  wetting  the  pile  with  hot  water  may 
start  it.  The  first  fermentation  is  nearly  always 
irregular;  that  is,  it  begins  unequally  in  several 
places  in  the  pile.  In  order  to  make  the  fermen- 


78 


GENERAL    ADVICE 


tation   uniform,    the   pile   must    be   turned   occa- 
sionally, taking  care  to  break  up  all  hard  lumps 


81.    Portable  coldframe. 

and  to  distribute  the  hot  manure  throughout  the 
mass.  It  is  sometimes  necessary  to  turn  the  pile 
five  or  six  times  before  it  is  finally  used,  although 
half  this  number  of  turnings  is  ordinarily  suffi- 
cient. When  the  pile  is  steaming  uniformly 
throughout,  it  is  placed  in  the  hotbed,  and  is 


82.     Small  coldframe. 

covered  with  the  earth  in  which  the  plants  are  to 
be  grown. 

Hotbed  frames  are  sometimes  set  on  top  of  the 
pile  of  fermenting  manure,  as  shown  in  Fig.  83. 
The  manure  should  extend  for  some  distance 
beyond  the  edges  of  the  frame;  otherwise  the 
frame  will  become  too  cold  about  the  outside,  and 
the  plants  will  suffer.  It  is  preferable,  however, 


HEAT    FOR    HOTBEDS  79 

to  have  a  pit  beneath  the  frame  in  which  the  ma- 
nure is  placed.  If  the  bed  is  to  be  started  in 
midwinter  or  very  early  in  the  spring,  it  is  ad- 
visable to  make  this  pit  in  the  fall  and  to  fill  it 
with  straw  or  other  litter  to  prevent  the  earth 
from  freezing  deep.  When  it  is  time  to  make  the 
bed,  the  litter  is  thrown  out,  and  the  ground  is 
warm  and  ready  to  receive  the  fermenting  ma- 
nure. The  pit  should  be  a  foot  wider  upon  either 


83.     Hotbed  with  manure  on  top  of  the  ground. 

side  than  the  width  of  the  frame.  Fig.  84  is  a 
cross -section  of  such  a  hotbed  pit.  Upon  the 
ground  a  layer  of  an  inch  or  two  of  any  coarse 
material  is  placed  to  keep  the  manure  off  the  cold 
earth.  Upon  this,  from  twelve  to  thirty  inches 
of  manure  is  placed.  Above  the  manure  is  a  thin 
layer  of  leaf -mold  or  some  porous  material,  which 
will  serve  as  a  distributor  of  the  heat,  and  above 
this  is  four  or  five  inches  of  soft  garden  loam,  in 
which  the  plants  are  to  be  grown. 


80 


GENERAL    ADVICE 


It  is  advisable  to  place  the  manure  in  the  pit  in 
layers,  each  stratum  to  be  thoroughly  trodden 
down  before  another  one  is  put  in.  These  layers 
should  be  from  four  to  eight  inches  in  thickness. 
By  this  means  the  mass  is  easily  made  uniform  in 
consistency.  Manure  which  has  too  much  straw 
for  the  best  results,  and  which  will  therefore  soon 
part  with  its  heat,  will  spring  up  quickly  when 


Section  of  a  hotbed. 


the  pressure  of  the  feet  is  removed.  Manure 
which  has  too  little  straw,  and  which  therefore 
will  not  heat  well  or  will  spend  its  heat  quickly, 
will  pack  down  into  a  soggy  mass  underneath  the 
feet.  When  the  manure  has  sufficient  litter,  it 
will  give  a  springy  feeling  to  the  feet  as  a  person 
walks  over  it,  but  will  not  fluff  up  when  the 


HOTBEDS 


81 


pressure  is  removed.  The  amount  of  manure 
which  is  to  be  used  will  depend  upon  its  quality, 
and  also  upon  the  season  in  which  the  hotbed  is 
made.  The  earlier  the  bed  is  made,  the  larger 
should  be  the  quantity  of  manure.  Hotbeds 
which  are  supposed  to  hold  for  two  months  should 
have  about  two  feet  of  manure,  as  a  rule. 

The  manure  will  ordinarily  heat  very  vigorously 
for  a  few  days  after  it  is  placed  in  the  bed.  A 
soil  thermometer  should  be  thrust  through  the 
earth  down  to  the  manure,  and  the  frame  kept 


85.    Parallel  runs  of  hotbeds  with  racks  for  holding  sashes. 

tightly  closed.  When  the  temperature  is  passing 
below  90°,  seeds  of  the  warm  plants,  like  tomatoes, 
may  be  sown,  and  when  it  passes  below  80°  or  70° 
the  seeds  of  cooler  plants  may  be  sown. 

If  hotbeds  are  to  be  used  every  year,  perma- 
nent pits  should  be  provided  for  them.  Pits  are 
made  from  two  to  three  feet  deep,  preferably  the 
former  depth,  and  are  walled  up  with  stone  or 
brick.  It  is  important  that  they  be  given  good 
drainage  from  below.  In  the  summer-time,  after 
the  sash  are  stripped,  the  old  beds  may  be  used 


82  GENERAL    ADVICE 

for  the  growing  of  various  delicate  crops,  like 
melons  or  half- hardy  flowers.  In  this  position, 
the  plants  can  be  protected  in  the  fall.  As  already 
suggested,  the  pits  should  be  cleaned  out  in  the 
fall  and  filled  with  litter  to  facilitate  the  work  of 
making  the  new  bed  in  the  winter  or  spring. 

Various  modifications  of  the  common  type  of 
hotbed  will  suggest  themselves  to  the  operator. 
The  frames  should  ordinarily  run  in  parallel  rows, 


Manure-heated  forcing-house. 


so  that  a  man  walking  between  them  can  attend 
to  the  ventilation  of  two  rows  of  sash  at  once. 
Fig.  85  shows  a  different  arrangement.  There  are 
two  parallel  runs,  with  walks  upon  the  outside, 
and  between  them  are  racks  to  receive  the  sash 
from  the  adjacent  frames.  The  sash  from  the 
left-hand  bed  are  run  to  the  right,  and  those  from 
the  right-hand  bed  are  run  to  the  left.  Running 
upon  racks,  the  operator  does  not  need  to  handle 
them,  and  the  breakage  of  glass  is  therefore  less; 
but  this  system  is  little  used  because  of  the  dim*- 


PIPE -HEATED    HOTBEDS 


83 


culty  of  reaching  the  farther  side  of  the  bed  from 
the  single  walk. 

If  the  hotbed  were  high  enough  and  broad 
enough  to  allow  a  man  to  work  inside,  we  should 
have  a  forcing -house.  Such  a  structure  is  shown 
in  Fig.  86,  upon  one  side  of  which  the  manure 
and  soil  are  already  in  place.  These  manure- 
heated  houses  are  often  very  efficient,  and  are  a 
good  make -shift  until  such  time  as  the  party  can 
afford  to  put  in  flue  or  pipe  heat. 

Hotbeds  may  be  heated  by  means  of  steam  or 
hot  water.  They  can 
be  piped  from  the 
heater  in  a  dwelling- 
house  or  greenhouse. 
Fig.  87  shows  a  hot- 
bed with  two  pipes, 
in  the  positions  7, 7. 
below  the  bed.  The 

SOil      is     Shown     at     4,  87>     Pipe-heated  hotbed. 

and  the  plants  (which, 

in  this  case,  are  vines)  are  growing  upon  a  rack, 
at  6.  There  are  doors  in  the  end  of  the  house, 
shown  at  2,2,  which  may  be  used  for  ventilation 
or  for  admitting  air  underneath  the  beds.  The 
pipes  should  not  be  surrounded  by  earth,  but 
should  run  through  a  free  air  space. 

It  would  scarcely  pay  to  put  in  a  hot  water  or 
steam  heater  for  the  express  purpose  of  heating 
hotbeds,  for  if  such  an  expense  were  incurred,  it 


84  GENERAL  ADVICE 

would  be  better  to  make  a  forcing -house.  Hot- 
beds may  be  heated,  however,  with  hot  air  flues 
with  very  good  results.  A  home-made  brick  fur- 
nace may  be  constructed  in  a  pit  at  one  end  of 
the  run  and  underneath  a  shed,  and  the  smoke 
and  hot  air,  instead  of  being  carried  directly  up- 
wards, is  carried  through  a  slightly  rising  hori- 
zontal pipe  which  runs  underneath  the  beds.  For 
some  distance  from  the  furnace,  this  flue  may  be 
made  of  brick  or  unverified  sewer  pipe,  but  stove- 
pipe may  be  used  for  the  greater  part  of  the  run. 
The  chimney  is  ordinarily  at  the  farther  end  of 
the  run  of  beds.  It  should  be  high,  in  order  to 
secure  a  good  draft.  If  the  run  of  beds  is  long, 
there  should  be  a  rise  in  the  underlying  pipe  of  at 
least  one  foot  in  twenty -five.  The  greater  the  rise 
in  this  pipe,  the  more  perfect  will  be  the  draft. 
If  the  runs  are  not  too  long,  the  underlying  pipe 
may  return  underneath  the  beds  and  enter  a 
chimney  directly  over  the  back  end  of  the  fur- 
nace, and  such  a  chimney,  being  warmed  from  the 
furnace,  will  ordinarily  have  an  excellent  draft. 
The  underlying  pipe  should  occupy  a  free  space 
or  pit  beneath  the  beds,  and  whenever  it  lies  near 
to  the  floor  of  the  bed  or  is  very  hot,  it  should  be 
covered  with  asbestos  cloth.  While  such  flue- 
heated  hotbeds  may  be  eminently  successful,  it 
may  nevertheless  be  said,  as  a  general  statement, 
that  whenever  such  trouble  and  expense  are  incurred 
it  is  better  to  make  a  forcing -house.  Full  direc- 


FLUE -HEATED  HOTBEDS  85 

tions  for  the  making  and  management  of  forcing- 
houses  may  be  found  in  Taft's  "Greenhouse  Con- 
struction" and  in  Bailey's  "Forcing -Book." 

Close  attention  is  required  in  the  management 
of  hotbeds,  to  insure  that  they  do  not  become  too 
hot  when  the  sun  comes  out  suddenly,  and  to  give 
plenty  of  fresh  air.  Ventilation  is  usually  effected 
by  raising  the  sash  at  the  upper  end  and  letting 
it  rest  upon  a  block.  Whenever  the  temperature 
is  above  freezing  point,  it  is  generally  advisable 
to  take  the  sash  off  part  way,  as  shown  in  the 
central  portions  of  Fig.  78,  or  even  to  strip  it  off 
entirely,  as  shown  in  Fig.  76.  Care  should  be 
taken  not  to  water  the  plants  at  nightfall,  espe- 
cially in  dull  and  cold  weather,  but  to  give  them 
water  in  the  morning,  when  the  sun  will  soon 
bring  the  temperature  up  to  its  normal  state. 

The  most  satisfactory  material  for  use  in  hotbed 
and  coldframe  sash  is  double- thick,  second-quality 
glass  ;  and  panes  which  are  twelve  inches  wide 
are  ordinarily  wide  enough,  and  suffer  compara- 
tively little  in  breakage.  For  coldframes,  how- 
ever, various  oiled  papers  and  water -proof  cloths 
may  be  used,  especially  for  plants  which  are 
started  little  in  advance  of  the  opening  of  the 
season.  When  these  materials  are  used,  it  is  not 
necessary  to  have  expensive  sash,  but  rectangular 
frames  are  made  from  strips  of  pine  seven -eighths 
inch  thick  and  two  and  one -half  inches  wide, 
halved  together  at  the  corners  and  each  corner 


86  GENERAL    ADVICE 

reinforced  by  a  square  carriage -corner,  such  as  is 
used  by  carriage -makers  to  secure  the  corners  of 
buggy  boxes.  These  corners  can  be  bought  by 
the  pound  at  hardware  stores. 

Some  protection,  other  than  the  glass,  must  be 
given  to  hotbeds.  They  need  covering  on  every 
cold  night,  and  sometimes  during  the  entire  day 
in  very  severe  weather.  Very  good  material  for 
covering  the  sash  is  matting,  such  as  is  used  for 
carpeting  floors.  Old  pieces  of  carpet  may  also 
be  used.  Various  hotbed  mattings  are  sold  by 
dealers  in  gardeners7  supplies.  Gardeners  often 
make  mats  of  rye  straw.  Such  mats  are  thick  and 
durable,  and  are  rolled  up  in  the  morning,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  78.  There  are  various  methods  of 
making  these  straw  mats,  but  Fig.  88  illustrates 
one  of  the  best.  A  frame  is  made  after  the  man- 
ner of  a  saw-horse,  with  a  double  top,  and  tarred 
or  marline  twine  is  used  for  securing  the  strands 
of  straw.  It  is  customary  to  use  six  runs  of  this 
warp.  Twelve  spools  of  string  are  provided,  six 
hanging  upon  either  side.  Some  persons  wind 
the  cord  upon  two  twenty -penny  nails,  as  shown 
in  the  figure,  these  nails  being  held  together  at 
one  end  by  wire  which  is  secured  in  notches  filed 
into  them.  The  other  ends  of  the  spikes  are  free, 
and  allow  the  string  to  be  caught  between  them, 
thus  preventing  the  balls  from  unwinding  as  they 
hang  upon  the  frame.  Two  wisps  of  straight  rye 
straw  are  secured  and  laid  upon  the  frame,  with 


MATS    FOR    HOTBEDS  87 

the  butt  ends  outward  and  the  heads  overlapping. 
Two  opposite  spools  are  then  brought  up  and  a 
hard  knot  is  tied  at  each  point.  The  projecting 
butts  of  the  straw  are  then  cut  off  with  a  hatchet, 
and  the  mat  is  allowed  to  drop  through  to  receive 
the  next  pair  of  wisps.  In  making  these  mats, 


Making   straw  mats. 


it  is  essential  that  the  rye  contains  no  ripe  grain; 
otherwise  it  attracts  the  mice.  It  is  best  to 
grow  rye  for  this  especial  purpose,  and  to  cut  it 
before  the  grain  is  in  the  milk,  so  that  the  straw 
does  not  need  to  be  threshed. 

In  addition  to  these  coverings  of  straw  or  mat- 


88  GENERAL    ADVICE 

ting,  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  provide  board 
shutters  to  protect  the  beds,  especially  if  the 
plants  are  started  very  early  in  the  season.  These 
shutters  are  made  of  half -inch  or  five -eighths  inch 
pine  lumber,  and  are  the  same  size  as  the  sash- 
three  by  six  feet.  They  may  be  placed  upon  the 
sash  underneath  the  matting,  or  they  may  be  used 
above  the  matting.  In  some  cases  they  are  used 
without  any  matting. 

In  the  growing  of  plants  in  hotbeds,  every  effort 
should  be  made  to  prevent  the  plants  from  grow- 
ing spindling,  or  becoming  " drawn.'7  To  make 
stocky  plants,  it  is  necessary  to  give  room  to 
each  plant,  to  be  sure  that  the  distance  from 
the  plants  to  the  glass  is  not  great,  not  to 
provide  too  much  water  in  dull  and  cold  wea- 
ther, and  especially  to  give  abundance  of  air. 

INSECTS    AND    DISEASES 

The  insects  and  diseases  which  attack  garden 
plants  are  legion  ;  and  yet,  for  the  most  part,  they 
are  not  very  difficult  to  combat  if  one  is  timely 
and  thorough  in  his  operations.  These  difficulties 
may  be  divided  into  three  great  categories  :  the 
injuries  wrought  by  insects  ;  the  injuries  of  para- 
sitic fungi;  the  various  types  of  so-called  consti- 
tutional diseases,  many  of  which  are  caused  by 
germs  or  microbes. 

Insect  injuries  are  easily  recognized.  The  dis- 
eases caused  by  parasitic  fungi  are  usually  desig- 


PARASITIC     FUNGI  89 

nated  by  distinct  marks  or  spots  upon  the  leaves 
or  stems,  and  the  gradual  weakening  or  death  of 
the  part ;  and,  in  many  cases,  the  leaves  drop 
bodily.  For  the  most  part,  these  spots  upon  the 
leaves  or  stems  develop  sooner  or  later  a  mildew- 
like  or  rusty  appearance,  which  is  due  to  the  de- 
velopment of  the  spores  or  fruiting  bodies.  Fig. 
89  illustrates  the  ravages  of  one  of  the  parasitic 


89.     Work  of   shot-hole   fungus  of   plum. 

fungi,  the  shot -hole  fungus  of  the  plum.  Each 
spot  upon  the  leaf  probably  represents  a  distinct 
attack  of  the  fungus,  and  in  this  particular  dis- 
ease these  injured  parts  of  tissue  are  liable  to  fall 
out,  leaving  holes  in  the  leaf.  Plum  leaves  which 
are  attacked  early  in  the  season  by  this  disease 
usually  drop  prematurely  ;  but  sometimes  the 
leaves  persist,  being  riddled  by  holes  at  the  close 
of  the  season.  Fig.  90  is  the  rust  of  the  holly- 


90 


GENERAL    ADVICE 


hock.  In  this  case  the  pustules  of  the  fungus 
are  very  definite  upon  the  under  side  of  the  leaf, 
and  each  pustule,  as  in  the  case  of  the  plum  dis- 
ease, may  represent  a  distinct  attack  of  fungus. 
The  constitutional  and  bacterial  diseases  usually 
affect  the  whole  plant,  or  at  least  large  portions  of 


90.     Hollyhock  rust.     Under  side  of  leaf. 

it ;  and  the  seat  of  attack  is  commonly  not  so 
much  in  the  individual  leaves  as  in  the  stems,  the 
sources  of  food  supply  being  thereby  cut  off  from 
the  foliage.  The  symptoms  of  this  class  of  dis- 
eases are  general  weakening  of  plant  when  the  dis  - 
ease  affects  the  plant  as  a  whole  or  when  it  attacks 
large  branches  ;  or  sometimes  the  leaves  shrivel 


ROOT -GALLS  91 

and  die  about  the  edges  or  in  large  irregular  dis- 
colored spots,  but  without  the  distinct  pustular 
marks  of  the  parasitic  fungi.  There  is  a  general 
tendency  for  the  foliage  upon  plants  affected  with 
such  diseases  to  shrivel  and  to  hang  upon  the  stem 
for  a  time.  One  of  the  best  illustrations  of  this 
type  of  disease  is  the  pear-blight. 

Still  another  class  of  diseases  is  characterized  by 
galls  upon  the  roots.  The  galls  upon  greenhouse 
plants,  and  upon  outdoor  plants  in  the  southern 
states,  are  usually  caused  by  a  true  worm  or 
nematode,  and  the  only  complete  remedy  for  these 
is  to  freeze  the  soil.  In  glass  houses  there  need 
be  no  injury  from  these  galls  if  the  gardener  is 
careful  to  use  no  soil  except  that  which  has  been 
thoroughly  frozen.  Nematode  galls  are  not  known 
to  occur  permanently  in  the  northern  states  where 
the  ground  freezes  deep.  There  is  another  type  of 
root- gall,  however,  illustrated  in  Fig.  91,  which 
is  coming  to  be  common  throughout  the  northern 
states,  and  the  cause  of  which  is  unknown.  It  is 
probable  that  this  disease  propagates  itself  in  the 
stock,  even  if  the  galls  are  all  removed  before  the 
plant  is  set,  although  this  point  is  not  yet 
thoroughly  determined.  It  is  supposed  by  many 
careful  observers,  also,  that  land  in  which  root- 
galls  have  been  produced  is  unsafe  for  the  setting 
of  plants  which  are  subject  to  the  injury.  The 
best  advice  which  can  now  be  given  in  regard  to 
this  difficulty  is  to  set  no  plants  which  have  galls 


91.     Root-gall   on  raspberry 


92.     Canker-worm 


INSECT    INJURIES 


93 


on  them,  and  to  devote  land  in  which  galls  have 
been  fonnd  to  some  annual  crop  for  three  or  four 

years,  until  the 
germs  of  the  dis- 
ease may  be  sup- 


93.     Box  for  protecting  plants 
from  insects. 


Protecting  from 
cut- worms. 


posed  to  be  eliminated.  These  galls  are  common 
upon  woody  plants,  especially  raspberries  and 
blackberries  and  the  fruit  trees. 

Of  obvious  insect  injuries,  there  are  two  general 
types, — those  wrought  by  insects  which  bite  or 
chew  their  food,  as  the  ordinary  beetles  and 
worms,  and  those  wrought  by  insects  which  punc- 
ture the  surface  of  the  plant  and  derive  their  food 
by  suction,  as  scale-insects  and  plant-lice.  The 
canker-worm  (Fig.  92)  is  a  notable  example  of 
the  former  class,  and  all  these  insects  are  readily 
dispatched  by  the  application  of  poison  to  the 
foliage.  It  is  apparent,  however,  that  insects 
which  suck  the  juice  of  the  plant  are  not  poisoned 


94  GENERAL    ADVICE 

by  any  liquid  which  may  be  applied  to  the  surface. 
They  may  be  killed  by  various  materials  which  act 
upon  them  externally,  as  the  soap  washes,  kero- 
sene emulsions,  and  the  like. 

The  first  and  best  means  of  averting  trouble 
from  insects  and  fungi  is  to  prevent  their  attacks. 
It  is  often  advisable  to  plant  only  those  species  or 
varieties  which  are  least  subject  to  serious  injury. 
If  a  garden  is  kept  clean  of  rubbish  and  all  places 
in  which  the  insects  can  hibernate  and  the  fungi 
can  propagate,  very  much  will  be  accomplished 
towards  keeping  the  plantation  in  health.  All 
fallen  leaves  from  plants  which  have  been  attacked 
by  fungi  should  be  raked  up  and  burned,  and  in 
the  fall  all  diseased  wood  should  be  cut  out  and 
destroyed.  In  the  case  of  small  plants  which  are 
attacked  by  large  insects,  hand-picking  is  the  most 
efficient  means  of  riddance.  There  are  also  va- 
rious ways  of  protecting  the  plants  from  the 
attacks  of  insects.  One  of  the  best  is  to  cover  the 
plants  with  fine  mosquito- netting  or  to  grow  them 
in  hand  frames,  or  to  use  a  wire -covered  box  like 
that  shown  in  Fig.  93.  In  growing  plants  under- 
such  covers,  care  must  be  taken  that  the  plants  are 
not  kept  too  close  or  confined  ;  and  in  cases  in 
which  the  insects  hibernate  in  the  soil,  these  boxes, 
by  keeping  the  soil  warm,  may  cause  the  insects  to 
hatch  all  the  sooner.  In  most  cases,  however,  these 
covers  are  very  efficient,  especially  for  keeping  the 
striped  bugs  off  young  plants  of  melons  and 


CUT -WORMS 


95 


cucumbers.  Cut -worms  may  be  kept  away  from 
plants  by  placing  sheets  of  tin  or  of  heavy  glazed 
paper  about  the  stem  of  the  plant,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  94.  Climbing  cut- worms  are  kept  off  young 


95.     Protecting  trees 
from  cut- worms. 


96.     Showing  methods  of  cut- 
ting paper  to  protect  plants    from 
maggots. 


trees  by  the  means  as  shown  in  Fig.  95;  or  a  roll 
of  cotton  may  be  placed  about  the  trunk  of  the 
tree,  a  string  being  tied  upon  the  lower  edge  of 
the  roll  and  the  upper  edge  of  the  cotton  turned 
down  like  the  top  of  a  boot.  The  insects  cannot 
crawl  over  this  obstruction. 


96  GENERAL    ADVICE 

The  maggots  which  attack  the  roots  of  cab- 
bages and  cauliflowers  may  be  kept  from  the 
plant  by  pieces  of  tarred  paper,  which  are  placed 
close  about  the  stem  upon  the  surface  of  the 
ground.  Fig.  96  illustrates  a  hexagon  of  paper, 
and  also  shows  a  tool  which  is  used  for  cutting 
it.  This  means  of  preventing  the  attacks  of  the 
cabbage  maggot  is  described  in  detail  by  Pro- 
fessor Goff: 

"The  cards  are  cut  in  a  hexagonal  form,  in 
order  to  better  economize  the  material,  and  a 
thinner  grade  of  tarred  paper  than  the  ordinary 
roofing  felt  is  used,  as  it  is  not  only  cheaper, 
but  being  more  flexible,  the  cards  made  from 
it  are  more  readily  placed  about  the  plant  with- 
out being  torn.  The  blade  of  the  tool,  which 
should  be  made  by  an  expert  blacksmith,  is 
formed  from  a  band  of  steel,  bent  in  the  form 
of  a  half  hexagon,  and  then  taking  an  acute 
angle,  reaches  nearly  to  the  center,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  96.  The  part  making  the  star- shaped  cut 
is  formed  from  a  separate  piece  of  steel,  so  at- 
tached to  the  handle  as  to  make  a  close  joint 
with  the  blade.  The  latter  is  beveled  from  the 
outside  all  around,  so  that  by  removing  the  part 
making  the  star -shaped  cut,  the  edge  may  be 
ground  on  a  grindstone.  It  is  important  that 
the  angles  in  the  blade  be  made  perfect,  and 
that  its  outline  represents  an  exact  half  hexagon. 
To  use  the  tool,  place  the  tarred  paper  on  the 


CABBAGE    MAGGOTS  97 

end  of  a  section  of  a  log  or  piece  of  timber  and 
first  cut  the  lower  edge  into  notches,  as  indi- 
cated at  a,  Fig.  96,  using  only  one  angle  of  the 
tool.  Then  commence  at  the  left  side,  and  place 
the  blade  as  indicated  by  the  dotted  lines,  and 
strike  at  the  end  of  the  handle  with  a  light  mal- 
let, and  a  complete  card  is  made.  Continue  in 
this  manner  across  the  paper.  The  first  cut  of 
every  alternate  course  will  make  an  imperfect 
card,  and  the  last  cut  in  any  course  may  be 
imperfect,  but  the  other  cuts  will  make  perfect 
cards  if  the  tool  is  correctly  made,  and  properly 
used.  The  cards  should  be  placed  about  the 
plants  at  the  time  of  transplanting.  To  place 
the  card  bend  it  slightly,  to  open  the  slit,  then 
slip  it  on  to  the  center,  the  stem  entering  the 
slit,  after  which  spread  the  card  out  flat,  and 
press  the  points  formed  by  the  star -shaped  cut 
snugly  around  the  stem." 

An  efficient  means  of  destroying  insects  in 
glass  houses  is  by  fumigating  with  various  kinds 
of  smoke  or  vapors.  The  best  material  to  use 
for  general  purposes  is  some  form  of  tobacco  or 
tobacco  compounds.  The  old  method  of  fumi- 
gating with  tobacco  is  to  slowly  burn  slightly 
dampened  tobacco  stems  in  a  kettle  or  scuttle, 
allowing  the  house  to  be  filled  with  the  pungent 
smoke.  Lately,  however,  a  fluid  extract  of  to- 
bacco has  been  brought  into  use,  which  is  evap- 
orated in  the  house  by  dropping  red-hot  iron  into 


98  GENERAL    ADVICE 

the  liquid,  and  which  is  very  destructive  to  insect 
life  while  it  does  not  injure  the  plants.  Fumi- 
gation may  be  practiced  even  in  hotbeds  and  cold- 
frames,  as  shown  in  Fig.  97,  which  illustrates  a 


97.     Fumigating  a  hotbed. 

fumigater  with  the  outlet  pipe  running  into  the 
frame  and  with  draft  supplied  by  means  of  a 
hand  bellows. 

The  most  efficient  means  of  destroying  insects 
and  fungi,  however,  is  by  the  use  of  various 
sprays.  The  two  general  types  of  insecticides 
have  already  been  mentioned — those  which  kill  by 
poisoning,  and  those  which  kill  by  destroying  the 
body  of  the  insect.  Of  the  former,  there  are 
three  materials  in  common  use — Paris  green, 
London  purple  and  hellebore.*  Of  the  latter, 


*PARIS  GREEN.— Paris  green,  1  pound;  water,  200-300  gallons.  If  this 
mixture  is  to  be  used  upon  peach  trees,  1  pound  of  quicklime  should  be 
added.  Repeated  applications  will  injure  most  foliage,  unless  lime  is 
added.  Paris  green  and  Bordeaux  mixture  can  be  applied  together  with 
perfect  safety.  Use  at  the  rate  of  4  ounces  of  the  arsenites  to  50  gallons 
of  the  mixture.  The  action  of  neither  is  weakened,  and  the  Paris  green 
loses  all  caustic  properties.  For  insects  which  chew. 

LONDON  PURPLE.— This  is  used  in  the  same  proportion  as  Paris  green, 
but  as  it  is  more  caustic  it  should  be  applied  with  two  or  three  times  its 
weight  of  lime,  or  with  the  Bordeaux  mixture.  The  composition  of  Lon- 


SPRAYING  99 

the  kerosene  emulsion*  is  the  most  generally  used. 
Sprays  for  fungi  depend  for  their  efficiency  upon 
some  form  of  copper  or  sulfur,  or  both.  For 
surface  mildews,  as  cucumber  mildew,  dusting 
flowers  of  sulfur  upon  the  foliage  is  ample  pro- 
tection. In  most  cases,  however,  it  is  necessary 
to  apply  the  materials  in  liquid  form,  because 
they  can  be  more  thoroughly  and  economically 
distributed,  and  they  adhere  to  the  foliage  better. 
The  best  general  fungicide  is  the  Bordeaux  mix- 
ture, t  It  is  generally,  however,  not  advisable  to 

don  purple  is  exceedingly  variable,  and  unless  good  reasons  exist  for  sup- 
posing that  it  contains  as  much  arsenic  as  Paris  green,  use  the  latter 
poison.  Do  not  use  London  purple  on  peach  or  plum  trees  unless  con- 
siderable lime  is  added.  For  insects  which  chew. 

HELLEBORE.— Fresh  white  hellebore,  1  ounce;  water,  3  gallons .  Apply 
when  thoroughly  mixed.  This  poison  is  not  so  energetic  as  the  arsenites, 
and  may  be  used  a  short  time  before  the  sprayed  portions  are  harvested. 
For  insects  which  chew. 

*KEROSENE  EMULSION. — Hard  soap,  %  pound;  boiling  water,  1  gallon; 
kerosene,  2  gallons.  Dissolve  the  soap  in  the  water,  add  the  kerosene, 
and  churn  with  a  pump  for  5  to  10  minutes.  Dilute  10  to  25  times  before 
applying.  Use  strong  emulsion,  diluted  four  times  in  winter,  for  all 
scale  insects.  For  insects  which  suck,  as  plant-lice,  mealy  bugs,  red 
spider,  thrips,  bark-lice  or  scale.  Cabbage- worms,  currant-worms, 
and  all  insects  which  have  soft  bodies,  can  also  be  successfully  treated. 

tBoRDEAUX  MIXTURE.— Copper  sulfate,  6  pounds;  quicklime,  4 
pounds;  water,  40  to  50  gallons.  Dissolve  the  copper  sulfate  by  put- 
ting it  in  a  bag  of  coarse  cloth  and  hanging  this  in  a  vessel  holding  at 
least  four  gallons,  so  that  it  is  just  covered  by  the  water.  Use  an  earthen 
or  wooden  vessel.  Slake  the  lime  in  an  equal  amount  of  water.  Then 
mix  the  two  and  add  enough  water  to  make  40  gallons.  It  is  then 
ready  for  immediate  use,  but  will  keep  for  some  time.  If  the  mixture  is 
to  be  used  on  peach  foliage,  it  is  advisable  to  add  an  extra  pound  of  lime 
to  the  above  formula.  When  applied  to  such  plants  as  carnations  or 
cabbages.,  it  will  adhere  better  if  a  pound  of  hard  soap  is  dissolved  in 
hot  water  and  added  to  the  mixture.  For  rots,  molds,  mildews,  and 
all  fungous  diseases. 


100  GENERAL    ADVICE 

use  the  Bordeaux  mixture  upon  ornamental  plants, 
because  it  discolors  the  foliage  and  makes  the 
plants  look  very  untidy.  In  such  cases  it  is  best 
to  use  the  ammoniacal  copper  solution,*  which 
leaves  no  stain  upon  the  plant.  In  all  spraying 
operations,  it  is  especially  important  that  the  ap- 
plications be  made  the  very  moment  the  insect  or 
disease  is  discovered,  or  in  the  case  of  fungous 
diseases,  if  one  is  expecting  an  attack,  it  is  well 
to  make  an  application  of  Bordeaux  mixture  even 
before  the  disease  appears.  When  the  fungus 
once  gets  inside  the  plant  tissue  it  is  almost  im- 
possible to  destroy  it,  inasmuch  as  fungicides  act 
upon  these  deep-seated  fungi  very  largely  by  pre- 
venting their  fruiting  and  their  further  spread  on 
the  surface  of  the  leaf.  For  ordinary  conditions, 
from  two  to  four  sprayings  are  necessary  to  dis- 
patch the  enemy. 

Persons  who  desire  to  post  themselves  thor- 
oughly on  spraying  should  procure  Lodeman's 
"Spraying  of  Plants,"  and  then  consult  the  recent 
bulletins  of  the  experiment  stations.  Spraying  in 
relation  to  fruit -culture  is  discussed  at  some 
length  in  "Principles  of  Fruit- Growing." 

There  are  many  kinds  of  machines  and  devices 
for  the  application  of  sprays  to  plants.  For 

*AMMONIACAL.  COPPER  CARBONATE.— Copper  carbonate,  1  ounce;  am- 
monia, 1  volume  26°  Beaume,  %  volumes  water  (enough  to  dissolve 
the  copper) ;  water,  9  gallons-.  The  copper  carbonate  is  best  dissolved  in 
large  bottles,  where  it  will  keep  indefinitely,  and  it  should  be  diluted  with 
water  as  required.  For  the  same  purposes  as  Bordeaux  mixture. 


SPRAYING    PUMPS 


101 


houses  and  a  few  individual  specimens,  the  spray 
may  be  applied  with  a  whisk,  or  with  a  common 
garden  syringe.  If  one  has  fifty  or  a  hundred 
plants  to  treat,  however,  it  is  best  to  have  some 
kind  of  bucket  pump  like  those  shown  in  Fig.  98. 
Upon  a  lawn  or  in  a  small  garden,  a  tank  upon 
wheels  (Figs.  99,  100,  101)  is  handy  and  efficient. 
In  such  cases,  or  even  for  larger  areas,  some  of 
the  knapsack  pumps  (Fig.  102)  are  very  desirable. 
These  machines  are  always  serviceable,  because  the 
operator  stands  so  near  to  his  work ;  but  they 
carry  a  comparatively  small  amount  of  liquid  and 
do  not  throw  it  rapidly,  and  they  are,  therefore, 
expensive  when  much  work  is  to  be  done.  Yet, 
in  ordinary  home 
grounds,  the  knap- 
sack pump 


98.     Bucket  pumps. 


99.     A  handy  garden  sprayer. 


one  of  the  most  efficient  and  practicable  of  all  the 
spraying  devices.  For  large  areas,  as  for  orchards 
and  fields,  a  barrel  pump  mounted  upon  a  wagon 


102  GENERAL    ADVICE 

or  a  stone -boat  is  best.  Common  types  of  barrel 
pumps  are  shown  in  Fig.  103.  There  are  many 
patterns  of  spraying  machines,  and  the  intending 


100.     Barrow  outfit. 

purchaser  should  send  for  catalogues  to  the  various 
manufacturers.  The  addresses  may  be  found  in 
the  advertising  pages  of  rural  papers. 

As  to  nozzles  for  spraying,  it  may  be  said  that 
there  is  no  one  pattern  which  is  best  for  all  pur- 
poses. For  work  at  short  range,  some  of  the 
nozzles  of  the  Cyclone  type,  as  shown  in  Fig.  104, 
are  to  be  recommended;  but  for  longer  range  and 
for  high  trees,  and  especially  for  barrel  pumps,  a 
nozzle  which  throws  more  liquid  is  desirable.  One 
of  the  best  of  these  is  shown  in  Fig.  105,  but 
nearly  every  manufacturer  of  pumps  has  some 


TREE    GUARDS  103 

particular  type  of   nozzle  which  he  sells  with  his 
machinery. 

PROTECTING  PLANTS  FROM  ANIMALS 

Along  roadsides  and  other  exposed  places  it  is 
'often  necessary  to  protect  newly  set  trees  from 
horses  and  the  encroachment  of  vehicles.  There 
are  various  kinds  of  tree  guards.  The  best  types 
are  those  which  are  more  or  less  open,  so  as  to 
allow  the  free  passage  of  air,  and  which  are  far 
enough  removed  from  the  body  of  the  tree  that 
the  trunk  may  expand  without  difficulty.  If  the 
tree  guards  are  very  tight  they  may  shade  the 
trunk  so  much  that  the  tree  may  suffer  when  the 
guard  is  removed.  It 
is  important  that  the 
guard  does  not  fill  with 
litter  in  which  insects 
may  harbor.  As  soon 
as  the  tree  is  old  enough 
to  escape  injury,  the 
guards  should  be  re- 
moved. A  very  good 
guard,  made  of  laths 
held  together  with  three 
strips  of  band-iron,  and  101-  Portable  barrel  outfit" 
secured  to  iron  posts,  is  shown  in  Fig.  106.  Fig. 
107  shows  a  guard  made  by  winding  fencing 
wire  upon  three  posts  or  stakes.  When  there  is 
likely  to  be  danger  from  too  great  shading  of 


104 


GENERAL    ADVICE 


the  trunk,  this  latter  form  of  guard  is  one  of  the 
best. 

Of    course   hitching   posts  should   be  provided, 
wherever  horses  are  to  stand,  to  obviate  the  temp- 


102.     Knapsack  pumps.— 1,  Galloway  knapsack  ;     2,  Garfield  ; 

3,  Deming  kerosene  emulsion  knapsack  ;    4,  Eclipse  ; 

5,  Excelsior. 

tation  of  hitching  to  trees.  Fig.  108,  however, 
shows  a  very  good  device  when  a  hitching  post  is 
not  wanted.  A  strong  stick,  four  or  five  feet 
long,  is  secured  to  the  tree  by  a  staple  and  at  the 
lower  end  of  the  stick  is  a  short  chain  with  a  snap 


MICE    AND    RABBITS 


105 


in  the  end.     The  snap  is  secured  to  the  bridle,  and 
the  horse  is  not  able  to  reach  the  tree. 

Trees  and  bushes  are  often  seriously  injured  by 
the  gnawing  of  mice  and  rabbits.     The  best  pre- 


103.     Barrel  outfits.— 

1,  Empire  ;    2,  Eclipse  ; 

3,   Pomona. 


ventive  is  not  to  have  the  vermin.  If  there  are 
no  places  in  which  rabbits  and  mice  can  burrow 
and  breed,  there  will  be  little  difficulty.  At  the 
approach  of  winter,  if  mice  are  feared,  the  dry 
litter  should  be  removed  from  about  the  bases  of 
the  trees,  or  it  should  be  packed  down  very  firm, 
so  that  the  mice  cannot  nest  in  it.  If  the  rodents 


106  GENERAL    ADVICE 

are  very  abundant,  it  may  be  advisable  to  wrap 
fine  wire  netting  about  the  base  of  the  tree. 
Various  washes  may  be  put  upon  the  tree  to  keep 
rabbits  away,  a  number  of  which  may  be  found 
in  the  "Horticulturist's  Rule -Book."  A  boy  who 
is  fond  of  trapping  or  hunting  will  ordinarily 
solve  the  rabbit  difficulty.  Rags  tied  upon  sticks 
which  are  placed  at  intervals  about  the  plantation 
will  often  frighten  rabbits  away. 

Trees   which    are    girdled    by   mice   should    be 
wrapped  up  as  soon   as  discovered,  so   that   the 


104.     Cyclone  and  Vermorel  nozzles. 

wood  shall  not  become  too  dry.  When  warm 
weather  approaches,  shave  off  the  edges  of  the 
girdle  so  that  the  healing  tissue  may  grow  freely, 
smear  the  whole  surface  with  grafting -wax,  or 
with  clay,  and  bind  the  whole  wound  with  strong 
cloths.  Even  though  the  tree  is  completely  girdled 
for  a  distance  of  three  or  four  inches,  it  may  gen- 
erally be  saved  by  this  treatment,  unless  the  in- 
jury extends  into  the  wood.  The  sap  from  the 
roots  rises  through  the  soft  wood  and  not  between 
the  bark  and  the  wood,  as  commonly  supposed. 
When  this  sap  has  reached  the  foliage,  it  is  elabo- 
rated and  changed  into  plant -food,,  and  this  food 


105.    McGowen         106.     Lath  tree 
nozzle.  guard. 


107.    Wire-and- 
post  tree    guard. 


108 


GENERAL    ADVICE 


is  distributed  throughout  the  plant,  the  path  of 
transfer  being  in  the  inner  layers  of  bark.  This 
food  material,  being  distributed  back  to  the  girdle, 
will  generally  heal  over  the  wound  if  the  woo^.  is 
not  allowed  to  become  dry.  In  some  cases,  how- 
ever, it  is  necessary  to  join  the  bark  above  and 


108.     Safe  method  of  hitching 
a  horse  to  a  tree. 


109.     Common  stake 
label. 


below  the  girdle  by  means  of  cions,  which  are 
whittled  to  a  wedge -shape  on  either  end,  and 
inserted  underneath  the  two  edges  of  the  bark. 
The  ends  of  the  cions  and  the  edges  of  the  wound 
are  held  by  a  bandage  of  cloth,  and  the  whole 
work  is  protected  by  melted  grafting -wax  poured 
upon  it.*  See  "Pruning -Book"  for  details. 


*A  good  grafting-wax  is  made  as  follows  :  Into  a  kettle  place  one  part 
by  weight  of  tallow,  two  parts  of  beeswax,  four  parts  of  rosin.  When 
completely  melted,  pour  into  a  tub  or  pail  of  cold  water,  then  work  it  with 
the  hands  (which  should  be  greased)  until  it  develops  a  grain  and 
becomes  the  color  of  taffy  candy.  The  whole  question  of  the  propagation 
of  plants  is  discussed  in  "The  Nursery-Book." 


LABELS    AND    MAPS 


109 


KEEPING  RECORDS   OF    THE  PLANTATION 

If  one  has  a  large  and  valuable  collection  of 
fruit  or  ornamental  plants,  it  is  desirable  that  he 
have  some  permanent  record  of  them.  The  most 
satisfactory  method  is  to  label  the  plants,  and 
then  to  make  a  chart  or  map  upon  which  the 
various  plants  are  indicated  in  their  proper  posi- 


110.    A  good  stake  label. 


111.     Metal   stake   label. 


tions.  The  labels  are  always  liable  to  be  lost  and 
to  become  illegible,  and  they  are  often  mis- 
placed by  careless  workmen  or  mischievous  boys. 
For  vegetables,  annuals  and  other  temporary 
plants,  the  best  labels  are  simple  stakes,  like  that 
shown  in  Fig.  109.  Garden  stakes  may  be  bought 
of  label  manufacturers,  a  foot  long,  an  inch  wide 
and  three  -  eighths  inch  thick,  for  from  three  to  five 


110 


GENERAL    ADVICE 


dollars  a  thousand.  These  take  a  soft  pencil  very 
readily,  and  if  the  labels  are  pulled  up  in  the  fall, 
and  stored  in  a  dry  place,  they  will  last  two 


113.     Common  zinc  tally. 

or  three  years.  For  more  permanent  herba- 
ceous plants,  as  rhubarb  and  asparagus,  or  even 
for  bushes,  a  stake  which  is  sawed  from  clear 
pine  or  cypress,  eighteen  inches  long,  three  inches 
wide  and  an  inch  or  more  thick,  affords  a  most 
excellent  label.  The  lower  end  of  the  stake  is 
sawed  to  a  point,  and  is  dipped  in  coal  tar  or 
creosote,  or  other  preservative.  The  top  of  the 
stake  is  painted  white,  and  the  legend  is  written 
with  a  large  and  soft  pencil.  When  the  writ- 
ing becomes  illegible  or  the  stake  is  needed  for 
other  plants,  a  shaving  is  taken  off  the  face  of 
the  label  with  a  plane,  a  fresh  coat  of  paint 
added,  and  the  label  is  as  good  as  ever.  These 
labels  are  strong  enough  to  withstand  shocks  from 
whiffletrees  and  tools,  and  should  last  ten  years. 


LABELS 


111 


Whenever  a  legend  is  written  with  a  lead  pencil, 
it  is  advisable  to  use  the  pencil  when  the  paint 
(which  should  be  white  lead)  is  still  fresh  or  soft. 
Fig.  110  shows  a  very  good  device  for  preserving 
the  writing  upon  the  face  of  the  label.  A  block 
of  wood  is  secured  to  the  label  by  means  of  a 
screw,  covering  the  legend  completely  and  pro- 
tecting it  from  the  weather. 

If  more  ornamental  stake  labels  are  desired, 
there  are  various  types  which  can  be  bought  in 
the  market,  or  one  can  be  made  after  the  fashion 
of  Fig.  111.  This  is  a  zinc  plate,  which  can  be 


114. 


Nurseryman's  wooden 
label. 


115.    Cornell  tree 
label. 


painted  black  and  the  name  written  with  white 
paint.  Many  persons,  however,  prefer  to  paint 
the  zinc  white,  and  write  or  stamp  the  label  with 


112  GENERAL    ADVICE 

black  ink  or  black  type.  Two  strong  wire  legs 
are  soldered  to  the  label,  and  these  prevent  it 
from  turning  around.  These  labels  are,  of  course, 
much  more  expensive  than  the  ordinary  stake 
labels,  and  are  usually  not  so  satisfactory. 

For  labeling  trees,  various  kinds  of  zinc  tallies 
are  in  common  use,  as  shown  in  Figs.  112  and 
113.  Fresh  zinc  takes  a  lead  pencil  readily,  and 
the  writing  often  becomes  more  legible  as  it  be- 
comes older,  and  it  will  generally  last  three  or 
four  years.  These  labels  are  attached  either  by 
wires,  as  a,  &,  Fig.  112,  or  they  are  wound  about 
the  limb  as  shown  in  c,  d  and  e,  in  Fig.  112.  The 
type  of  zinc  label  most  in  use  is  a  simple  strip  of 
zinc,  as  shown  in  Fig.  113,  wrapped  about  the 
limb.  The  metal  is  so  flexible  that  it  expands 
readily  with  the  growth  of  the  limb.  While  these 
zinc  labels  are  durable,  they  are  very  inconspicuous 
because  of  their  neutral  color,  and  it  is  often 
difficult  to  find  them  in  dense  masses  of  foliage. 
The  common  wooden  label  of  the  nurserymen 
(Fig.  114)  is  perhaps  as  useful  as  any  for  general 
purposes.  If  the  label  has  had  a  light  coat  of 
thin  white  lead,  and  the  legend  has  been  made 
with  a  soft  lead  pencil,  the  writing  should  be 
legible  for  four  or  five  years.  Fig.  115  shows 
another  type  of  label  which  is  more  durable, 
since  the  wire  is  stiff  and  large,  and  is  secured 
around  the  limb  by  means  of  pincers.  The  large 
loop  allows  the  limb  to  expand,  and  the  stiff  wire 


TREE    LABELS 


113 


prevents  the  misplacing  of  the  label  by  winds  and 
workmen.  The  tally  itself  is  what  is  known  as 
the  package  label  of  the  nurserymen,  being  six 
inches  long,  one  and  one -fourth  inches  wide,  and 
costing  (painted)  less  than  one  and  one -half  dol- 
lars a  thousand.  The  legend  is  made  with  a  lead 


116.     Serviceable  tree  label. 


117.     Zinc  tree  label. 


pencil  when  the  paint  is  fresh,  and  sometimes  the 
label  is  dipped  in  thin  white  lead  after  the  writing 
is  made,  so  that  the  paint  covers  the  writing  with 
a  very  thin  protecting  coat.  A  similar  label  is 
shown  in  Fig.  116,  which  has  a  large  wire  loop, 
with  a  coil  to  allow  the  expansion  of  the  limb. 


114  GENERAL    ADVICE 

The  tallies  of  this  type  of  label  are  often  made 
of  glass  or  porcelain  with  the  name  indelibly 
printed  in  them.  Fig.  117  shows  a  zinc  tally, 
which  is  secured  to  the  tree  by  means  of  a  sharp 
and  pointed  wire  which  is  driven  into  the  wood. 
Some  prefer  to  have  two  arms  to  this  wire,  driv- 
ing one  point  upon  either  side  of  the  tree.  If 
galvanized  wire  is  used,  these  labels  will  last  for 
many  years. 

It  is  very  important,  when  adjusting  labels  to 
trees,  to  be  sure  that  the  wire  is  not  twisted  tight 
against  the  wood.      Fig.  118  shows 
the  injury  which  is  likely  to  result 
from   label  wires.     When  a  tree  is 
constricted    or    girdled,    it    is   very 
liable  to   be   broken  off  by    winds. 
It   should   be   a  rule   to  attach  the 
label    to    a    lirnb  of    minor   impor- 
tance, so    that   if    the  wire  should 
us.    stem      injure  the    part,   the    loss   will    not 
girdled  by  the   be  serious.      When  the   label,  Fig. 

label  wire.         n^  ig    appUed?  Qnly  the    tipg  of   the 

wire  should  be  twisted  together,  leaving  a  large 
loop  for  the  expansion  of  the  limb. 

ENRICHING    THE    LAND. 

There  are  two  coordinate  problems  concerned  in 
the  fertilizing  of  the  land:  the  direct  addition  of 
plant -food,  and  the  improvement  of  the  physical 
texture  of  the  soil.  The  latter  office  is  often  the 


GREEN    MANURES  115 

more  important.  Lands  which,  on  the  one  hand, 
are  very  hard  and  solid,  with  a  tendency  to  bake, 
and,  upon  the  other,  those  which  are  loose  and 
leachy,  are  very  greatly  benefited  by  the  addition 
of  organic  matter.  When  this  organic  matter,  as 
animal  and  plant  remains,  decays  and  becomes 
thoroughly  incorporated  with  the  soil,  it  forms 
what  is  called  humus.  The  addition  of  this 
humus  to  the  land  makes  it  mellow,  friable, 
retentive  of  moisture,  'and  promotes  the  general 
chemical  activities  of  the  soil.  It  also  puts  the 
soil  in  the  best  physical  condition  for  the  comfort 
and  well-being  of  the  plants.  Very  many  of  the 
lands  which  are  said  to  be  exhausted  of  plant- 
food  still  contain  enough  potash,  phosphoric  acid 
and  lime,  and  other  fertilizing  elements,  to  raise 
good  crops  ;  but  they  have  been  greatly  injured 
in  their  physical  texture  by  long -continued  crop- 
ping, injudicious  tillage,  and  the  withholding  of 
vegetable  matter.  A  part  of  the  marked  results 
which  are  obtained  from  the  plowing  under  of 
clover  is  due  to  the  mere  addition  of  vegetable 
matter  to  the  soil,  wholly  aside  from  the  addition 
of  fertilizing  material;  and  this  is  emphatically 
true  of  clover  because  its  deep -growing  roots 
penetrate  and  break  up  the  subsoil.  Muck  and 
leaf -mold  are  often  very  useful  in  ameliorating 
either  very  hard  or  very  loose  lands.  Excellent 
humous  material  may  be  constantly  at  hand  if 
the  leaves,  garden  refuse  and  some  of  the  manure 


116  GENERAL    ADVICE 

be  piled  and  composted.  If  the  pile  is  turned 
several  times  a  year,  the  material  becomes  fine  and 
uniform  in  texture. 

The  various  questions  associated  with  the  fer- 
tilizing of  the  land  are  too  large  to  be  considered 
in  detail  here.  Persons  who  desire  to  familiarize 
themselves  with  the  subject  should  consult  Rob- 
erts' "Fertility  of  the  Land"  and  King's  "Soil:" 
and  if  it  is  desired  to  make  application  of  the 
knowledge  directly  to  the  growing  of  fruit,  they 
should  consult  Bailey's  "Principles  of  Fruit- 
Growing." 

It  may  be  said,  however,  that,  as  a  rule,  most 
lands  contain  all  the  elements  of  plant -food  in 
sufficient  quantities  except  potash,  phosphoric  acid 
and  nitrogen.  In  many  cases,  lime  is  very  bene- 
ficial to  land,  usually  because  it  corrects  acidity 
of  the  soil  and  has  a  mechanical  effect  in  pulver- 
izing and  flocculating  clay  and  in  cementing  sands, 
rather  than  in  the  direct  addition  of  plant -food. 
The  chief  sources  of  commercial  potash  are  mu- 
riate of  potash,  sulfate  of  potash  and  wood  ashes. 
For  general  purposes,  the  muriate  of  potash  is 
now  recommended,  because  it  is  comparatively 
cheap  and  the  composition  is  uniform.  A  normal 
application  of  muriate  of  potash  is  from  two 
hundred  to  three  ,hundred  pounds  to  the  acre  ;  but 
on  some  garden  lands,  where  the  greatest  results 
are  demanded,  sometimes  as  much  as  twice  this 
application  may  be  made.  Phosphoric  acid  is  got 


FERTILIZERS  117 

in  dissolved  South  Carolina  and  Florida  rock  and 
in  various  bone  preparations.  These  materials 
are  applied  at  the  rate  of  two  hundred  to  four 
hundred  pounds  to  the  acre.  Commercial  nitro- 
gen is  chiefly  obtained  in  the  form  of  animal  ref- 
use, as  blood  and  tankage,  and  in  nitrate  of  soda. 
It  is  more  likely  to  be  lost  by  leaching  through 
the  land  than  the  mineral  substances  are,  espe- 
cially if  the  land  lacks  humus.  Nitrate  of  soda  is 
very  soluble,  and  should  be  applied  in  small  quan- 
tities at  intervals.  Nitrogen,  being  the  element 
which  is  mostly  conducive  to  vegetative  growth, 
tends  to  delay  the  season  of  maturity  if  applied 
late  in  the  season.  One  hundred  to  three  hundred 
pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda  may  be  applied  to  the 
acre,  but  it  is  ordinarily  better  to  make  two  or 
three  applications  at  intervals  of  three  to  six 
weeks.  Fertilizing  materials  may  be  applied  either 
in  fall  or  spring;  but  in  the  case  of  nitrate  of 
soda,  it  is  usually  better  not  to  apply  in  the  fall 
unless  the  land  has  plenty  of  humus  to  prevent 
leaching,  or  on  plants  which  start  very  early  in 
the  spring.  The  material  is  sown  broadcast,  or  it 
may  be  scattered  lightly  in  furrows  underneath  the 
seeds,  and  then  covered  with  dirt.  If  sown  broad- 
cast, it  may  be  applied  either  after  the  seeds  are 
sown  or  before.  It  is  usually  better  to  apply  it 
before,  for  although  the  rains  carry  it  down,  never- 
theless the  upward  movement  of  water  during  the 
dry  weather  of  the  summer  tends  to  bring  it 


118  .    GENERAL    ADVICE 

back  to  the  surface.  It  is  important  that  large 
lumps  of  fertilizer,  especially  muriate  of  potash 
and  nitrate  of  soda,  do  not  fall  near  the  crowns 
of  the  plants;  otherwise  the  plants  may  be  seri- 
ously injured.  It  is  a  general  principle,  also,  that 
it  is  better  to  apply  sparingly  of  fertilizers  and 
liberally  of  tillage.  The  tendency  is  to  make  fer- 
tilizers do  penance  for  the  sins  of  neglect,  but  the 
results  do  not  often  meet  one's  expectations. 

If  one  has  only  a  small  garden  or  a  home  yard, 
it  will  ordinarily  not  pay  him  to  buy  the  chemicals 
separately,  as  recommended  above,  but  he  can  buy 
some  complete  fertilizer  which  is  sold  under  a 
trademark  or  brand,  and  which  has  a  guaranteed 
analysis.  If  one  is  raising  plants  chiefly  for  their 
foliage,  as  rhubarb  and  ornamental  bushes,  he 
should  select  a  fertilizer  comparatively  rich  in 
nitrogen ;  but  if  he  desires  chiefly  fruit  and 
flowers,  the  mineral  elements,  as  potash,  and 
phosphoric  acid,  should  be  high.  If  one  uses  the 
chemicals,  it  is  not  necessary  that  they  be  mixed 
before  application;  in  fact,  it  is  usually  better 
not  to  mix  them,  because  some  plants  and  some 
soils  need  more  of  one  element  than  of  another. 
Just  what  materials,  and  how  much,  different  soils 
and  plants  require,  must  be  determined  by  the 
grower  himself  by  observation  and  experiment, 
but  the  above  hints  may  suggest  the  problems  to 
be  considered. 

Muriate  of   potash  costs  forty  dollars  and  up- 


FERTILIZERS  119 

wards  per  ton,  sulfate  about  forty -eight  dollars, 
dissolved  boneblack  about  twenty -four  dollars, 
ground  bone  about  thirty  dollars,  kainit  about 
thirteen  dollars,  and  nitrate  of  soda  about  two  and 
one-fourth  cents  per  pound.  These  prices  vary,  of 
course,  with  the  composition  or  mechanical  condi- 
tion of  the  materials.  The  average  composition 
of  unleached  wood  ashes  in  the  market  is  about 
as  follows:  Potash,  5.25  per  cent;  phosphoric  acid, 
1.70  per  cent;  lime,  34  per  cent;  magnesia,  3.40 
per  cent.  The  average  composition  of  kainit  is 
13.54  per  cent  potash,  1.15  per  cent  lime.  The 
composition  of  sylvinit  (which  is  said  to  be  known 
as  sulfate  of  potash  in  some  quarters)  is  about 
16  per  cent  of  potash,  in  the  form  of  both 
muriate  and  sulfate,  mostly  the  former.  The 
fact  that  the  soil  itself  is  the  greatest  storehouse 
of  plant -food  is  shown  by  the  following  average 
of  thirty -five  analyses  of  the  total  content  of  the 
first  eight  inches  of  surface  soils,  per  acre:  3,521 
pounds  of  nitrogen,  4,400  pounds  of  phosphoric 
acid,  19,836  pounds  of  potash.  Much  of  this  is 
unavailable,  but  the  good  tillage  and  green  manur- 
ing which  have  been  recommended  tend  to  un- 
lock it, 


SECTION  II 


THE   PLAN   OF   THE   PLACE 

One  cannot  expect  satisfaction  in  the  planting 
and  developing  of  a  home  area  unless  he  has  a 
definite  conception  of  what  is  to  be  done.  This 
necessarily  follows,  since  the  pleasure  which  one 
derives  from  any  enterprise  depends  chiefly  upon 
the  definiteness  of  his  ideals  and  upon  his  ability 
to  develop  them.  The  home-maker  should  de- 
velop his  plan  before  he  attempts  to  develop  his 
place.  He  should  determine  the  locations  of  the 
leading  features  of  the  place,  and  the  relative  im- 
portance to  be  given  to  the  various  parts  of  it,— 
as  of  the  landscape  parts,  the  ornamental  areas, 
the  vegetable  garden  and  the  fruit  plantations. 
The  details  of  the  planting,  however,  may  be  .de- 
termined as  the  place  develops :  it  is  only  /the 
structural  features  and  purposes^  of  the  piace 
which  need  to  be  determined  beforehand.  The 
incidental  modifications  which  can  be  made  in  the 
planting  from  time  to  time  keep  the  interest  alive, 
and  allow  the  planter  to  gratify  his  desire  to  ex- 
periment with  new  plants  and  new  methods.  The 
following  discussions  may  aid  the  enquirer  in  for- 
mulating a  conception  of  a  home  plot.  If  it 
(120) 


THE    LANDSCAPE    PICTURE  121 

should  happen  that  any  person  has  read  the 
author's  bulletins  on  "  Suggestions  for  the  Plant- 
ing of  Shrubbery,"  «  China  Asters,"  and  "  Culti- 
vated Poplars,"  he  may  recognize  some  of  the 
sentences  in  the  following  pages. 


THE  PICTURE  IN  THE  LANDSCAPE 

The  trouble  with  home  grounds  is  not  so  much 
that  there  is  too  little  planting  of  trees  and  shrubs 
as  that  this  planting  is  meaningless.     Every  yard 
should  be  a  picture.     That  is,  the  area  should  be 
set  off  from  every  other  area,  and  it  should  have 
such   a   character   that    the   observer   catches    its 
entire   effect    and    purpose   without    stopping    to 
analyze  its  parts.     The  yard  should  be  one  thing,  i 
one  area,  with  every  feature  contributing  its  part  ( 
to  one  strong  and  homogeneous  effect. 

These    remarks   will    become    concrete    if    the 
reader  turns  his  eye  to  Figs  119  and  120.     The 
former  represents   the  common   type  of   planting 
of  front  yards.     The  bushes  and  trees  are  scat- 
tered  promiscuously  over  the  area.     Such  a  yard 
has  no  purpose,  no  central  idea.     It  shows  plainly  i 
that  the  planter  had  no  constructive  conception,  • 
no  grasp  of  any  design,   and  no  appreciation  of  f 
the  fundamental  elements  of  the  beauty  of  land- 
scape.    Its  only  merit   is  the  fact  that  trees  and 
shrubs    have    been   planted ;     and    this,   to   most 
minds,  comprises  the  essence  and  sum  of  the  orna- 


122        THE  PLAN  OF  THE  PLACE 

mentation  of  grounds.      Every  tree  and  bush  is 
an     individual,    alone,    unattended,    disconnected 


119.     The  common  or  nursery  way  of  planting. 

from  its  environments,  and  therefore  meaningless. 
Such  a  yard  is  only  a  nursery. 

The  other  plan  (Fig.  120)  is  a  picture.  The 
eye  catches  its  meaning  at  once.  The  central  idea/ 
is  the  residence,  with  a  warm  and  open  greensward 
in  front  of  it.  The  same  trees  and  bushes  which 
were  scattered  haphazard  over  Fig.  119  are  massed 
into  a  framework  to  give  effectiveness  to  the  pic- 
ture of  home  and  comfort.  This  style  of  planting 
makes  a  landscape,  even  though  the  area  be  no 
larger  than  a  parlor.  The  other  style  is  simply  a 
collection  of  curious  plants.  The  one  has  an 
instant  and  abiding  pictorial  effect,  which  is  rest- 
ful and  satisfying  :  the  observer  exclaims,  "  What 
a  beautiful  home  this  is  !"  The  other  piques  one's 
curiosity,  obscures  the  residence,  divides  and  dis- 
tracts the  attention  :  the  observer  exclaims,  "What 
excellent  lilac  bushes  are  these  ! " 

The   following  sketch,   which  the  author  made 


THE    PICTURE    IN    THE    LANDSCAPE  123 

in  a  periodical  ("  Science",  Nov.  17,  1893)  as  a 
comment  upon  a  discussion  of  the  * '  picture  in  the 
landscape",  will  still  further  explain  the  subject 
under  consideration  : 

"  The  inquiry  in  a  recent  issue,  into  the  causes 
of  the  unlike  impressions  which  one  receives  from 
a  given  landscape  and  from  a  painting  of  it, 
seems  to  me  to  explain  the  subject  admirably. 
The  correspondent  supposes  that  the  reason  why 
the  picture  appeals  to  us  more  than  the  land- 
scape does  is  because  the  picture  is  condensed,  and 
the  mind  becomes  acquainted  with  its  entire  pur- 
pose at  once,  while  the  landscape  is  so  broad  that 
the  individual  objects  at  first  fix  the  attention,  and 
it  is  only  by  a  process  of  synthesis  that  the  unity 
of  the  landscape  finally  becomes  apparent.  This 
is  admirably  illustrated  in  photographs.  One  of 
the  first  surprises  which  I  experienced  when  I  be- 


120.     The  proper  or  pictorial  type  of   planting. 

gan  the  use  of  the  camera  was  the  discovery  that 
very  tame    scenes    become    interesting   and    often 


124        THE  PLAN  OF  THE  PLACE 

even    spirited   in   the   photograph.     But   there   is 
something  more   than  mere  condensation   in   this 
vitalizing  and  beautifying  effect  of  the  photograph 
or  the  painting.     Individual  objects  are  so  much 
reduced    that    they   no    longer   appeal    to   us   as 
distinct  subjects,  and  however  uncouth  they  may 
be  in  the  reality,  they  make  no  impression  in  the 
picture.     The   thin   and    sere    sward   may  appear 
rather  like  a  closely  shaven  lawn  or  a  new-mown 
meadow.      And  again,  the  picture  sets  a  limit  to 
the  scene  ;    it  frames  it,   and  thereby  cuts  off  all 
extraneous  and  confusing  or  irrelevant  landscapes. 
"All  these  remarks  are  enforced  in  the  aesthe- 
tics of  landscape  gardening.     It  is  the  artist's  one 
desire  to  make  pictures   in  the   landscape.      This 
is  done  in  two  ways, — by  the  form  of  plantations// 
and  by  the  use  of  vistas.     He  will  throw  his  plan -If 
tations  into  such  positions  that  open  and  yet  more 
or  less  confined  areas  of  greensward  are  presented 
to  the  observer  at  various  points.     This  glade-like 
opening  is  nearly  or  quite  devoid  of  small  or  in- 
dividual  objects,  which   always   destroy  the  unity 
of    such    areas   and    are    meaningless    in    them- 
selves.    The  two  sketches  illustrate  my  me;  ling. 
The  first  one  (Fig.  119)  is  a  fair  diagram  of  the 
average  front-yard.     It  is  full  of  individual  trees 
and  bushes,  or  groups,  and  the  eye  is  carried  from 
object  to  object,  while  the  entire   yard  makes  no 
quick  appeal   to   the   mind.     One   is    pleased  only 
with   the   kinds    of    plants   which    he    sees.     The 


THE    IMPORTANCE    OF    THE    PICTURE          125 

second  sketch  (Fig.  120)  presents  a  definite  area 
at  once  to  the  observer,  and  the  individual  plants 
are  of  minor  importance.  Here  is  a  landscape — 
a  picture  ;  there  is  a  nursery. 

"A  vista  is  a  narrow  opening  or  view  between 
plantations  to  a  distant  landscape.  It  cuts  up  the 
broad  horizon  into  portions  which  are  readily  cog- 
nizable. It  frames  portions  of  the  country-side. 
The  verdurous  sides  of  the  planting  are  the  sides 
of  the  frame  ;  the  foreground  is  the  bottom,  and 
the  sky  is  the  top." 

If  the  reader  catches  the  full  meaning  of  these 
contrasts,  he  has  acquired  the  first  and  most  im- 
portant conception  in  landscape  gardening.  The 
conception  will  grow  upon  him  day  by  day  ;  and 
if  he  is  of  an  observing  turn  of  mind,  he  will  find 
that  this  simple  lesson  will  revolutionize  his  habit 
of  thought  respecting  the  planting  of  grounds  and 
the  beauty  of  landscapes.  He  will  see  that  a  bush 
or  flower-bed  which  is  no  part  of  any  general 
purpose  or  design — that  is,  which  does  not  con- 
tribute to  the  making  of  a  picture — might  better 
never  have  been  planted.  For  myself,  I  had 
rather  have  a  bare  and  open  pasture  than  such  a 
yard  as  that  shown  in  Fig.  119,  even  though  it 
contained  the  choicest  plants  of  every  land.  The 
pasture  would  at  least  be  plain  and  restful  and 
unpretentious.  It  would  be  nature -like  and 
sweet.  But  the  yard  would  be  full  of  effort 
and  fidget. 


THE    MASS    VS.     THE     SPECIMEN  127 

Reduced  to  a  single  expression,  all  this  means 
that  the  greatest  artistic  value  in  planting  lies  in 
the  e%ctjijLJiha-Jiiass,  and  not  in  the  individual 
plant.  A  mass  has  the  greater  value  because  it 
presents  a  much  greater  range  and  variety  of 
forms,  colors,  shades  and  textures,  because  it  has 
sufficient  extent  or  dimensions  to  add  structural 
character  to  a  place,  and  because  its  features  are 
so  continuous  and  so  well  blended  that  the  mind 
is  not  distracted  bv  incidental  and  irrelevant 


122.     A  nature-planted  tangle. 


ideas.  A  couple  of  pictures  will  admirably  illus- 
trate all  this.  Figs.  121,  122  are  pictures  of  nat- 
ural copses.  The  former  stretches  across  a  vale, 
and  makes  a  lawn  of  the  bit  of  meadow  which 
lies  in  front  of  it.  The  landscape  has  become 
so  small  and  so  well  denned  by  this  bank  of 
verdure  that  it  has  a  familiar  and  personal  feel- 
ing. The  great,  bare,  open  meadows  are  too  ill- 


128        THE  PLAN  OP  THE  PLACE 

defined  and  too  extended  to  give  any  domestic 
air ;  but  here  is  a  portion  of  the  meadow  set  off 
into  an  area  which  one  can  compass  with  his 
affections. 

Those  masses  in  Figs.  121,  122,  have  their 
own  intrinsic  merits,  as  well  as  their  office  in  de- 
nning a  bit  of  nature.  One  is  attracted  by  the 
carelessness  of  arrangement,  the  irregularity  of 
sky-line,  the  bold  bays  and  promontories,  and 
the  infinite  play  of  light  and  shade.  The  ob- 
server is  interested  in  each  because  it  has  charac- 
ter, or  features  which  no  other  mass  in  all  the 
world  possesses.  He  knows  that  the  birds  build 
their  nests  in  the  tangle,  and  the  rabbits  find  it 
a  happy  covert. 

Now  let  the  reader  turn  to  Fig.  123,  which  is 
a  picture  of  an  "improved"  city  yard.  Here 
there  is  no  structural  strength  to  the  planting, 
no  defining  of  the  area,  no  continuous  flow  of 
the  form  and  color.  Every  bush  is  what  every 
other  one  is  or  may  be,  and  there  are  hundreds 
like  them  in  the  same  town.  The  birds  shun 
them.  Only  the  bugs  find  any  happiness  in 
them.  The  place  has  no  fundamental  design  or 
idea,  no  lawn  upon  which  a  picture  can  be  con- 
structed. 

The  motive  which  shears  the  trees  also  razes 
the  copse,  in  order  that  the  gardener  or  "im- 
prover" may  show  his  art.  Compare  Figs.  124 
and  125.  Many  persons  seem  to  fear  that  they 


130 


THE    PLAN    OF    THE    PLACE 


will  never  be  known  to  the  world  unless  they  ex- 
pend a  great  amount  of   muscle  or  do  something 


124,    A  rill  and  a  picture, 

emphatic    or    spectacular ;     and   their    fears    are 
usually  well  founded. 

If   a    landscape    is    a    picture,  it   must   have  a 


IMPORTANCE    OF    THE    SWARD 


131 


canvas.  This  canvas  is  the  greensward.  Upon 
this,  the  artist  paints  with  tree  and  bush  and 
flower,  as  the  painter  does  upon  his  canvas  with 
brush  and  pigments.  The  opportunity  for  artistic 
composition  and  design  is  nowhere  so  great  as 
in  the  landscape  garden,  because  no  other  art  has 


125.     The  same  rill  "improved."    From  an  actual   example. 


such  a  limitless  field  for  the  expression  of  its 
emotions.  It  is  not  strange,  if  this  be  true,  that 
there  have  been  few  great  landscape  gardeners, 
and  that,  falling  short  of  art,  the  landscape  gar- 


132 


THE    PLAN    OF    THE    PLACE 


dener  too  often  works  in  the  sphere  of  the  arti- 
san. There  can  be  no  rules  for  landscape  garden- 
ing, any  more  than  there  can  be  for  painting  or 
sculpture.  The  operator  may  be  taught  how  to 
hold  the  brush  or  strike  the  chisel  or  plant  the 
tree,  but  he  remains  an  operator ;  the  art  is  intel- 
lectual and  emotional,  and  will  not  confine  itself 
in  precepts. 


m 


The  making  of  a  good  and  spacious  lawn, 
then,  is  the  very  first  practical  consideration  in 
a  landscape  garden.  This  provided,  the  gardener 
conceives  what  is  the  dominant  and  central  fea- 
ture in  the  place,  and  then  throws  the  entire 
premises  into  subordination  with  this  feature. 
In  home  grounds  this  central  feature  is  the  house. 
To  scatter  trees  and  bushes  over  the  area  defeats 
the  fundamental  purpose  of  the  place,— the  pur- 


THE    BACKGROUND 


133 


pose  to  make  every  part  of  the  grounds  lead  up 
to  the  home  and  to  accentuate  its  homelikeness. 
Keep  the  center  of  the  place  open.  Plant  the 
borders.  Avoid  all  disconnected,  cheap,  patchy, 
and  curious  effects. 

If   the   lawn  then,  is  the  canvas,  the   house  is 


127.    A  home. 

the  central  object  in  the  picture.  All  the  planting 
should  be  subordinate  and  accessory  to  it.  This 
central  object  should  itself  be  denned  by  a  back- 
ground. A  house  which  stands  on  a  bare  plain 
or  hill  is  a  part  of  the  universe,  not  a  part  of  a 
home.  Recall  the  cozy  little  farmhouse  which  is 
backed  by  a  wood  or  an  orchard ;  then  compare 
some  pretentious  structure  which  stands  apart 
from  all  planting.  Or  observe  the  warmth  and 


134        THE  PLAN  OF  THE  PLACE 

homelikeness  which  the  background  gives  to  Fig. 
127.  Yet  how  many  are  the  farmhouses  which 
stand  as  stark  and  cold  against  the  sky  as  if  they 
were  competing  with  the  moon!  We  would  not 
believe  it  possible  for  a  man  to  live  in  a  house 


128.    Well  planned  but  poorly  executed. 

twenty- five  years  and  not,  by  accident,  allow  some 
tree  to  grow,  were  it  not  that  it  is  so  ! 

It  is  not-  enough  that  trees  and  bushes  be 
planted  in  masses.  They  must  be  kept  in  masses 
by  letting  them  grow  freely  in  a  natural  manner. 
The  pruning-knife  is  the  most  inveterate  enemy 
of  shrubbery.  Pictures  128  and  129  illustrate 
what  I  mean.  The  former  represents  a  good 
group  of  bushes  so  far  as  arrangement  is  con- 
cerned, but  it  has  been  ruined  by  the  shears. 
The  attention  of  the  observer  is  instantly  arrested 
by  the  individual  bushes.  Instead  of  one  free 
and  expressive  object,  there  are  several  stiff  and 
expressionless  ones.  If  the  observer  stops  to  con- 
sider his  own  thoughts  when  he  comes  upon  such 


THE    SHEARING    OF    TREES 


135 


a  collection,  he  will  likely  find  himself  counting 
the  bushes  ;  or,  at  least,  he  will  be  making 
mental  comparisons  of  the  various  bushes,  and 
wondering  why  they  are  not  all  sheared  to  be  ex- 
actly alike.  Fig.  129  shows  how  the  same  "artist" 
has  treated  two  deutzias  and  a  juniper.  Much 
the  same  effect  could  have  been  secured,  and 
with  much  less  trouble,  by  laying  two  flour  bar- 


129.     The  three  guardsmen. 

rels  end  to  end  and  standing  a  third  one  between 
them. 

I  must  hasten  to  say  that  I  have  not  the 
slightest  objection  to  the  shearing  of  trees.  The 
only  trouble  is  in  calling  the  practice  art,  and 
in  putting  the  trees  where  people  must  see  them. 
If  the  operator  simply  calls  the  business  shear- 


136  THE    PLAN    OF    THE    PLACE 

ing,  and  puts  the  things  where  he  and  others 
who  like  them  may  see  them,  objection  could  not 
be  raised.  Some  persons  like  painted  stones, 
others  like  iron  bulldogs  in  the  front  yard  and 
the  word  "welcome"  worked  into  the  door-mat, 
and  others  like  barbered  trees.  So  long  as  these 
likes  are  purely  personal,  it  would  seem  to  be 
better  taste  to  put  such  curiosities  in  the  back 
yard,  where  the  owner  may  admire  them  without 
molestation. 

I  do  not  mean  to  discourage  the  use  of  flowers 
and  bright  foliage  and  striking  forms  of  vege- 
tation ;  but  these  things  are  never  primary  con- 
siderations in  a  good  place.  The  structural  ele- 
ments of  the  place  are  designed  first.  The  flank- 
ing and  bordering  masses  are  then  planted. 
Finally,  the  flowers  and  accessories  are  put  in, 
in  just  the  same  way  that  a  house  is  painted 
after  it  is  built.  Flowers  appear  to  best  advan- 
tage when  seen  against  a  background  of  foliage, 
and  they  are  then,  also,  an  integral  part  of  the 
picture.  The  flower  garden,  as  such,  should  be 
at  the  rear  or  side  of  a  place,  the  same  as  all 
other  strictly  personal  appurtenances  are  ;  but 
flowers  and  bright  leaves  may  be  freely  scattered 
along  the  borders  and  near  the  foliage  masses. 

The  use  of  flower-beds  is  so  commonly  misun- 
derstood that  I  must  expatiate  upon  the  fact,  even 
at  the  risk  of  putting  my  reader  to  sleep.  It  is 
commonly  assumed  that  many  people  have  no 


FLOWER-BEDS  137 

love  or  appreciation  of  flowers,  but  it  is  probably 
nearer  to  the  truth  to  say  that  no  person  is  wholly 
lacking  in  this  respect.  Even  those  persons  who 
declare  that  they  care  nothing  for  flowers,  are 
generally  deceived  by  their  dislike  of  flower-beds 
and  the  conventional  methods  of  flower-growing. 
I  know  many  people  who  stoutly  deny  any  liking 
for  flowers,  but  who,  nevertheless,  are  rejoiced 
with  the  blossoming  of  the  orchards  and  the  pur- 
ple bloom  of  the  clover  fields.  The  fault  is  not 
so  much  with  the  persons  themselves  as  with  the 
methods  of  growing  and  displaying  the  flowers. 

The  greatest  fault  with  our  flower-growing  is 
the  stinginess  of  it.  We  grow  our  flowers  as  if 
they  were  the  choicest  rarities,  to  be  coddled  in  a 
hotbed  or  under  a  bell -jar,  and  then  to  be  ex- 
hibited as  single  specimens  in  some  little  pinched 
and  ridiculous  hole  cut  in  the  turf,  or  perched 
upon  an  ant-hill  which  some  gardener  has  labo- 
riously heaped  upon  a  lawn.  Nature,  on  the  other 
hand,  grows  her  flowers  in  the  most  luxurious 
abandon,  and  one  can  pick  an  armful  without 
offense.  She  grows  her  flowers  in  earnest,  as  a 
man  grows  a  crop  of  corn.  One  can  revel  in  the 
color  and  the  fragrance,  and  be  satisfied. 

The  next  fault  with  our  flower-growing  is  the 
flower-bed.  Nature  has  no  time  to  make  flower- 
beds; she  is  busy  growing  flowers.  And,  then, 
if  she  were  given  to  flower-beds,  the  whole 
effect  would  be  lost,  for  she  could  no  longer  be 


138        THE  PLAN  OF  THE  PLACE 

luxurious  and  wanton,  and  if  a  flower  were  picked 
her  whole  scheme  might  be  upset.  Imagine  a 
geranium -bed  or  a  coleus-bed,  with  its  wonderful 
"design,"  set  out  into  a  wood  or  in  a  free  and 
open  landscape!  Even  the  birds  would  laugh 
at  it! 

What   I  want   to  say  is  that  we  should   grow 
flowers   when   we  make   a   flower-garden.      Have 


130.     The  flower-garden  is  by  itself,  and  at  one  side 
or   in  the  rear  of  the  place. 

enough  of  them  to  make  it  worth  the  effort.  I 
sympathize  with  the  man  who  likes  sunflowers. 
There  is  enough  of  them  to  be  worth  looking  at. 
They  fill  the  eye.  Now  show  this  man  ten  square 
feet  of  pinks,  or  asters,  or  daisies,  all  growing 
free  and  easy,  and  he  will  tell  you  that  he  likes 
them.  All  this  has  a  particular  application  to  the 
farmer.  He  grows  potatoes  and  buckwheat  and 


THE    FLOWER-BED  139 

weeds  by  the  acre:  two  or  three  unhappy  pinks 
or  geraniums  are  not  enough  to  make  an  im- 
pression. 

I  suppose  that  everyone  feels  that  the  greatest 
charm  of  any  landscape  in  the  north  is  the  green- 
sward. It  is  the  canvas  upon  which  every  artist- 
planter  attempts  to  make  a  picture.  But  imagine 
a  painter  putting  a  glowing  bed  of  coleuses  on 
his  canvas  for  a  center-piece!  The  fact  is,  the 
easiest  way  to  spoil  a  good  lawn  is  to  put  a  flower- 
bed in  it;  and  the  most  effective  way  in  which  to 
show  off  flowers  to  the  least  advantage  is  to  plant 
them  in  a  bed  in  the  greensward.  Flowers  need 
a  background.  We  do  not  hang  our  pictures  on 
fence -posts.  If  flowers  are  to  be  grown  on  a 

• •• "1""U'^;,-;;;!':;;;"  .H.;r:'Siir-;i'"-;:'::iVSHS?.'Tfl 

'    ,.V;P »...,..„. 

^    "'.'nVillMwm'yil,,,...!,,, 

'••{'••  .:,    ..':  "  !  •  ••>.•. .    '-• 


131.     A  hole  in  the   ground.     In  July,  August  and 
September  it  was  a  carpet-bed. 

lawn,  let  them  be  of  the  hardy  kind,  which  can  be 
naturalized  in  the  sod  and  which  grow  freely  in 
the  tall  unmown  grass.  Lawns,  upon  their  part, 


140        THE  PLAN  OF  THE  PLACE 

should  be  large,  free  and  generous,  but  the  more 
they  are  cut  up  and  worried  with  trivial  effects 
the  smaller  and  meaner  they  look. 

But    if     we    consider    these     lawn   flower-beds 
wholly  apart   from    their  surroundings,   we    must 


^f!> 


132.     Worth  paying  admittance  to  see! 

admit  that  they  are  at  best  unsatisfactory.  It 
generally  amounts  to  this,  that  w^e  have  four 
months  of  sparse  and  downcast  vegetation,  one 
month  of  limp  and  frost-bitten  plants,  and  seven 
months  of  bare  earth  or  mud.  I  am  not  now 
opposing  the  carpet -beds  which  professional  gar- 
deners make  in  parks  and  other  museums.  I  like 
museums,  and  some  of  the  carpet  beds  and  set 
pieces  are  "fearfully  and  wonderfully  made"  (see 


FLOWERS    IN    LAWNS 


141 


Fig.  132).  I  am  directing  my  remarks  to  those 
humble  home-made  flower-beds  which  are  so 
common  in  lawns  of  country  and  city  homes 
alike.  These  beds  are  cut  from  the  good  fresh 


133.     A  heavy  border  which   shuts  out   a   bleak   field.     In 
front  of  this  border  is  an  ideal  place  for  flowers. 

turf,  often  in  the  most  fantastic  designs,  and  are 
filled  with  such  plants  as  the  women  of  the 
place  may  be  able  to  carry  over  in  cellars  or  in 
the  window.  The  plants  themselves  may  look 
very  well  in  pots,  but  when  they  are  turned  out 
of  doors  they  have  a  sorry  time  for  a  month 
adapting  themselves  to  the  sun  and  winds,  and 
it  is  generally  well  on  towards  midsummer  before 
they  begin  to  cover  the  earth.  During  all  these 
weeks  they  have  demanded  more  time  and  labor 
than  would  have  been  needed  to  care  for  a  plan- 
tation of  much  greater  size,  and  which  would 


142        THE  PLAN  OF  THE  PLACE 

have  given  flowers  every  day  from  the  time  the 
birds  began  to  nest  in  the  spring  until  the  last 
robin  had  flown  in  November. 

I  wish  that  instead  of  saying  flower-bed  we 
might  say  flower -border.  Any  good  place,  as  I 
have  said,  should  have  its  center  open.  The  sides 
may  be  more  or  less  confined  by  plantings  of 
shrubs  and  trees  and  many  kinds  of  herbs.  This 
border -planting  sets  bounds  to  the  place,  and 
makes  it  one's  own.  The  person  lives  inside  his 
place,  not  on  it.  He  is  not  cramped  and 
jostled  by  things  scattered  all  over  the  place, 
with  no  purpose  or  meaning.  Along  the  borders, 
against  groups,  often  by  the  corners  of  the  resi- 
dence or  in  front  of  porches, — these  are  places  for 
flowers.  When  planting,  do  not  aim  at  designs  or 
effects:  just  have  lots  of  flowers,  a  variety  of 
them,  growing  luxuriantly,  as  if  they  could  not 
help  it.  Ten  flowers  against  a  background  are 
more  effective  than  a  hundred  in  the  opw-n  yard. 

I  have  asked  a  professional  artist,  Mr.  Mathews, 
to  draw  me  the  kind  of  a  flower-bed  that  he  likes. 
It  is  shown  in  Fig.  134.  It  is  a  border, — a  strip 
of  land  two  or  three  feet  wide  along  a  fence. 
This  is  the  place  where  pigweeds  usually  grow. 
Here  he  has  planted  marigolds,  gladiolus,  golden- 
rod,  wild  asters,  China  asters,  and — best  of  all — 
hollyhocks.  Any  one  would  like  that  flower-gar- 
den. It  has  some  of  that  local  and  indefinable 
charm  which  always  attaches  to  an  "old-fashioned 


THE    FLOWER  -  BORDER 


143 


134.     An  informal  flower-border. 


garden,"  with  its  exuberant  tangle  of  form  and 
color.  Every  yard  has  some  such  strip  of  land 
along  a  rear  walk  or  fence  or  against  a  building. 
It  is  the  easiest  thing  to  plant  it, — ever  so  much 
easier  than  digging  the  hideous  geranium  bed 
into  the  center  of  an  inoffensive  lawn. 


144        THE  PLAN  OF  THE  PLACE 

Speaking  of  the  old-fashioned  garden  reminds 
me  of  one  of  William  Falconer's  excellent  para- 
graphs ("Gardening,"  November  15,  1897,  p.  75): 
"We  tried  it  in  Schenley  Park  this  year.  We 
needed  a  handy  dumping  ground,  and  hit  on  the 
head  of  a  deep  ravine  between  two  woods;  into 
it  we  dumped  hundreds  upon  hundreds  of  wagon 
loads  of  rock  and  clay,  filling  it  near  to  the  top, 
then  surfaced  it  with  good  soil.  Here  we  planted 
some  shrubs,  and  broadcast  among  them  set  out 
scarlet  poppies,  eschscholtzias,  dwarf  nasturtiums, 
snapdragons,  pausies,  marigolds,  and  all  manner 
of  hardy  herbaceous  plants,  having  enough  of 
each  sort  to  make  a  mass  of  its  kind  and  color, 
and  the  effect  was  fine.  In  the  middle  was  a 
plantation  of  hundreds  of  clumps  of  Japan  and 
German  irises  interplanted,  thence  succeeded  by 
thousands  of  gladioli,  and  banded  with  montbre- 
tias,  from  which  we  had  flowers  till  frost.  The 
steep  face  of  this  hill  was  graded  a  little  and  a 
series  of  winding  stone  steps  set  into  it,  making 
the  descent  into  the  hollow  quite  easy;  the  stones 
were  the  rough,  uneven  slabs  secured  in  blasting 
the  rocks  when  grading  in  other  parts  of  the  park, 
and  both  along  outer  edges  of  the  steps  and  the 
sides  of  the  upper  walk  a  wide  belt  of  moss  pink 
was  planted ;  and  the  banks  all  about  were 
planted  with  shrubs,  vines,  wild  roses,  columbines 
and  other  plants.  More  cameras  and  kodaks  were 
levelled  by  visitors  at  this  piece  of  gardening  than 


INFORMAL    FLOWER -BORDERS  145 

at  any  other  spot  in  the  park,   and  still  we  had 
acres  of  painted  summer  beds." 

There  is  no  prescribed  rule  as  to  what  one 
should  put  into  these  informal  flower -borders.  Put 
in  them  the  plants  you  like.  Perhaps  the  greater 
part  of  them  should  be  perennials,  which  come  up 
of  themselves  every  spring,  and  which  are  hardy 
and  reliable.  Wild  flowers  are  particularly  effec- 
tive. Everyone  knows  that  many  of  the  native 
herbs  of  woods  and  glades  are  more  attractive 
than  some  of  the  most  prized  garden  flowers. 
The  greater  part  of  these  native  flowers  grow 
readily  in  cultivation,  sometimes  even  in  places 
which,  in  soil  and  exposure,  are  much  unlike  their 
native  haunts.  Many  of  them  make  thickened 
roots,  and  they  may  be  safely  transplanted  at  any 
time  after  the  flowers  have  passed.  To  most  per- 
sons, the  wild  flowers  are  less  known  than  many 
exotics  which  have  smaller  merit,  and  the  exten- 
sion of  cultivation  is  constantly  tending  to  anni- 
hilate them.  Here,  then,  in  the  informal  flower- 
border,  is  an  opportunity  to  rescue  them.  Then 
one  may  sow  in  freely  of  easy -growing  annuals, 
as  marigolds,  China  asters,  petunias  and  phloxes, 
and  sweet  peas.  One  of  the  advantages  of  these 
borders  is  that  they  are  always  ready  to  receive 
more  plants,  unless  they  are  full.  That  is,  their 
symmetry  is  not  marred  if  some  plants  are  pulled 
out  and  others  are  put  in.  And  if  the  weeds  now 
and  then  get  a  start,  very  little  harm  is  done. 


146 


THE    PLAN    OF    THE    PLACE 


Such  a  border  half  full  of  weeds  is  handsomer 
than  the  average  well  kept  geranium  bed,  because 
the  weeds  enjoy  growing  and  the  geraniums  do 
not.  I  have  such  a  border,  three  feet  wide  and 
ninety  feet  long,  beside  a  rear  walk.  I  am  putting 
plants  into  it  every  month  in  the  year  when  the 
frost  is  out  of  the  ground.  Plants  are  dug  in  the 


135.    A  good  place  for  flowers  in  a  formal  border. 


woods  or  fields,  whenever  I  find  one  which  I  fancy, 
even  if  in  July.  The  tops  are  cut  off,  the  roots 
kept  moist,  and  even  though  the  soil  is  a  most 
unkindly  one,  most  of  these  much -abused  plants 
grow.  To  be  sure,  there  are  some  weeds  in  it; 
but  then,  the  weeds  are  a  part  of  the  collection! 
A  well  grown  bull-thistle  in  such  a  place  is  worth 


A    WEEDLAND    BORDER  147 

more  than  a  bushel  of  potatoes.  These  plants 
have  been  lifted  from  the  fields  in  the  most  care- 
less fashion.  A  noble  plant  of  the  pink -hearted 
Spiraea  lobata  was  pulled  from  a  swamp  in  July 
when  it  was  in  full  bloom;  the  bluebells  have 
been  stolen  from  cliffs  without  regard  to  time  or 
season;  some  of  the  roots  were  carried  in  the 
pocket  for  hours  before  the  opportunity  came  for 
planting,  and  this,  too,  in  the  height  of  summer. 
Of  course,  some  plants  have  resented  this  treat- 
ment, but  the  border  is  a  happy  family,  and  it  is 
all  the  better  and  more  personal  because  it  is  the 
result  of  moments  of  relaxation.  Such  a  border 
has  something  new  and  interesting  every  month 
of  the  growing  season;  and  even  in  the  winter 
the  tall  clumps  of  grasses  and  aster -stems  wave 
their  plumes  above  the  snow  and  are  a  source  of 
delight  to  every  frolicksome  bevy  of  snowbirds. 

I  have  spoken  of  this  choice  little  weedland  to 
show  how  simple  and  easy  a  thing  it  is  to  make 
an  attractive  mass -plantation.  Set  aside  a  bit  of 
ground  in  the  right  place.  Make  the  most  of  a 
rock  (Fig.  136),  or  bank,  or  other  undesirable 
feature  of  the  place.  Spade  up  the  ground  and 
make  it  rich,  and  then  set  plants  in  it.  That  is 
all  there  is  of  it.  You  will  not  get  it  to  suit  you 
the  first  year,  and  perhaps  not  the  second  or 
the  third  one.  You  can  always  pull  out  plants 
and  put  more  in.  I  should  be  sorry  if  it  did 
perfectly  suit  you,  for  I  should  then  feel  that  you 


148        THE  PLAN  OF  THE  PLACE 

had  lost  interest  in  it.  I  should  never  want  a 
lawn -garden  if  I  could  not  change  it  a  little  or 
plant  something  new  each  year. 

What  kinds  of  shrubs  and  flowers  shall  I  plant  ? 
This  is  a  wholly  secondary  and  largely  a  personal 
consideration.  Be  sure  that  the  main  plantings 
are  made  up  of  hardy  and  vigorous  species,  and 
have  lots  of  them.  Then  get  the  things  which 
you  like.  I  like  bull- thistles,  lilacs,  hollyhocks, 
burdocks,  rhubarb,  dogwoods,  spireas,  elders  and 


136.    Making  the  most  of  a  rock. 

such  careless  things.  But  others  have  better 
taste.  There  is  endless  merit  in  the  choice  of 
species,  but  the  point  I  wish  to  emphasize  is  that 
the  arrangement  or  disposition  of  the  plants  is 
far  more  important  than  the  kinds. 

It  should  be  said  that  the  appreciation  of 
foliage  effects  in  the  landscape  is  a  higher  type 
of  feeling  than  the  desire  for  mere  color.  Flowers 
are  transitory,  but  foliage  and  plant  forms  are 
abiding.  The  common  roses  have  very  little  value 


SHRUBS    FOR    LAWNS 


149 


for  landscape  planting,  because  the  foliage  and 
habit  of  the  rose  bush  are  not  attractive,  the 
leaves  are  inveterately  attacked  by  bugs,  and  the 
blossoms  are  fleeting.  Some  of  the  wild  roses 
and  the  Japanese  Rosa  rugosa,  however,  have 
distinct  merit  for  mass  effects.  Wild  bushes 


137.    Making  a  picture  with  rhubarb. 

are  nearly  always  attractive  when  planted  in 
borders  and  groups.  They  improve  in  appear- 
ance under  cultivation,  because  they  are  given 
a  better  chance  to  grow.  In  wild  nature,  there 
is  such  a  fierce  struggle  for  existence  that  plants 
usually  grow  to  few  or  single  stems,  and  they  are 
sparse  and  scraggly  in  form  ;  but  once  given  all 


150  THE    PLAN    OP    THE    PLACE 

the  room  they  want  and  a  good  soil,  and  they  be- 
come luxurious,  full  and  comely.  In  most  home 
grounds  in  the  country,  the  body  of  the  planting 
may  be  very  effectively  made  by  the  use  of  bushes 
taken  from  adjacent  woods  and  fields.  The 
masses  may  then  be  enlivened  by  the  addition 
here  and  there  of  cultivated  bushes,  and  the  plant- 
ing of  flowers  and  herbs  about  the  borders.  It 
is  not  essential  that  one  know  the  names  of  these 
wild  bushes,  although  a  knowledge  of  their  botani- 
cal features  will  add  greatly  to  the  pleasure  of 
growing  them.  Neither  will  they  look  common 
when  transferred  to  the  lawn.  There  are  very 
few  people  who  know  even  the  commonest  wild 
bushes  intimately,  and  the  bushes  change  so 
much  in  looks  when  removed  to  rich  grounds 
that  few  people  recognize  them.  I  have  a  mass 
of  shrubbery  (Fig.  140)  which  is  much  admired, 
and  visitors  are  always  asking  me  what  the 
bushes  are  ;  yet  I  dug  most  of  the  roots  in  the 
neighborhood. 

It  is  but  a  corollary  of  this  discussion  to  say 
that  plants  which  are  simply  odd  or  grotesque  or 
unusual  should  be  used  with  the  greatest  caution, 
for  they  introduce  extraneous  and  jarring  effects. 
They  are  little  in  sympathy  with  a  landscape  gar- 
den. An  artist  would  not  care  to  paint  an  ever- 
green which  is  sheared  into  some  grotesque  shape. 
It  is  too  formal,  and  it  has  no  elements  of  true 
beauty.  It  is  only  curious,  and  shows  what  a 


WEEPING    TREES 


151 


man  with  plenty  of  time  and  long  pruning  shears 
can  accomplish.  A  weeping  tree  is  nearly  al- 
ways seen  to  best  advantage  when  it  stands 
against  a  group  or  mass  of  foliage  (Fig.  138)  as 
a  promontory,  adding  zest  and  spirit  to  the  border. 
This  leads  me  to  speak  of  the  planting  of  the 
Lombardy  poplar,  which  may  be  taken  as  a  type 


138."    A  weeping  tree  well   placid. 

of  the  formal  tree.  Fortunately,  this  tree  is  less 
planted  in  New  York  than  in  many  western  states. 
Its  chief  merits  to  the  average  planter  are  the 
quickness  of  its  growth  and  the  readiness  with 
which  it  multiplies  by  cuttings.  But  in  the  north 
it  is  apt  to  be  a  short-lived  tree,  and  it  suffers 
from  storms,  and  it  has  few  really  useful  quali- 
ties. It  may  be  used  to  some  advantage  in  wind- 


152        THE  PLAN  OF  THE  PLACE 

breaks  for  peach  orchards  and  other  short-lived 
plantations;  but  after  a  few  years  a  screen  of 
Lombardies  begins  to  fail,  and  the  habit  of  suck- 
ering  from  the  root  adds  to  its  undesirable  fea- 
tures. For  shade  it  has  little  merit,  and  for  tim- 
ber none.  People  like  it  because  it  is  striking, 
and  this,  in  an  artistic  sense,  is  its  gravest  fault. 
It  is  unlike  anything  else  in  our  landscape,  and 
does  not  fit  into  our  scenery  well  The  Lombardy 
should  rarety,  if  ever,  be  seen  as  a  single  speci- 
men; and  above  all,  its  formality  and  stiffness 
should  not  be  emphasized  by  planting  it  in  rows 
along  country  roads.  A  row  of  Lombardies  along 
a  roadside  is  like  a  row  of  exclamation  points! 

But  the  tree  can  often  be  used  to  good  effect  as 
one  factor  in  a  group  of  trees,  where  its  spire-like 
shape,  towering  above  the  surrounding  foliage, 
may  lend  a  spirited  charm  to  the  landscape.  It 
combines  well  in  such  groups  if  it  stands  in  visual 
nearness  to  chimneys  or  other  tall  formal  objects. 
Then  it  gives  a  sort  of  architectural  finish  and 
spirit  to  a  group  of  trees;  but  the  effect  is  gen- 
erally lessened,  if  not  altogether  spoiled,  if  more 
than  one  Lombardy  is  in  view.  One  or  two  speci- 
mens may  often  be  used  to  give  vigor  to  heavy 
plantations  about  low  buildings,  and  the  effect  is 
generally  best  if  they  are  seen  beyond  or  at  the 
rear  of  the  building. 

Another  feature  of  common  ornamental  plant- 
ing, which  is  well  illustrated  in  the  use  of  poplars, 


POPLARS    AND    WILLOWS  153 

is  the  desire  for  plants  merely  because  they  grow 
rapidly.  A  very  rapid -growing  tree  nearly  always 
produces  cheap  effects.  This  is  well  illustrated  in 
the  common  planting  of  willows  and  poplars  about 
summer  places  or  lake  shores.  Their  effect  is 
almost  wholly  one  of  cheapness  and  temporari- 
ness.  There  is  little  that  suggests  strength  or 
durability  in  willows  and  poplars,  and  for  this 
reason  they  should  always  be  used  as  minor  or 
secondary  features  in  ornamental  or  home  grounds. 
Where  quick  results  are  desired,  nothing  is  better 
to  plant  than  these  trees,  but  better  trees,  like 
maples,  oaks,  or  elms,  should  be  planted  with 
them,  and  the  poplars  and  willows  should  be  re- 
moved as  fast  as  the  other  species  begin  to  afford 
protection.  When  the  plantation  finally  assumes 
its  permanent  characters,  a  few  of  the  remaining 
poplars  and  willows,  judiciously  left,  may  afford 
very  excellent  effects  ;  but  no  one  who  has  an 
artist's  feeling  would  be  content  to  construct  the 
frame  wrork  of  his  place  of  these  rapid -growing 
and  soft -wooded  trees. 

I  have  said  that  the  legitimate  use  of  poplars  in 
ornamental  grounds  is  in  the  production  of 
minor  or  secondary  effects.  As  a  rule,  they  are 
less  adapted  to  isolated  planting  as  specimen 
trees  than  to  use  in  composition, — that  is,  as 
parts  of  general  groups  of  trees,  where  their  char- 
acters serve  to  break  the  monotony  of  heavier 
foliage.  The  poplars  are  gay  trees,  as  a  rule, 


154        THE  PLAN  OF  THE  PLACE 

especially  those,  like  the  aspens,  which  have  a 
trembling  foliage.  Their  leaves  are  bright  and 
the  tops  are  thin.  A  few  of  them  in  judicious 
positions  give  a  place  a  sprightly  air.  I  especially 
love  the  common  aspen,  or  Populus  tremuloides,  of 
our  woods.  Its  dangling  catkins  (Fig.  139),  light, 
dancing  foliage  and  silver -gray  limbs  always  cheer 
me,  and  its  autumn  color  is  one  of  the  purest 
golden -yellows  of  our  landscapes.  I  like  to  see  a 
tree  of  it  standing  out  in  front  of  a  group  of 
maples  or  evergreens.  Its  whole  attitude  is  then 
one  of  familiarity. 

I  will  conclude  this  sketch  of  the  ideas  asso- 
ciated with  the  picture  in  the  landscape  with  an 
article  which  I  contributed  to  a  recent  issue  of 
"Park  and  Cemetery,"  entitled  "What  are  the 
fundamental  concepts  in  landscape  gardening"?" 

If  the  teacher  or  writer  is  to  make  any  subject 
plain  to  his  pupils  or  readers,  he  must  be  able  to 
single  out  a  few  simple  and  fundamental  prin- 
ciples. To  state  facts  and  rules  is  to  treat  only 
the  incidents  of  the  subject.  Rules  are  not  final. 
They  express  only  the  experience  of  the  author 
or  the  combined  experiences  of  others;  and  since 
experiences  vary,  the  nature  and  the  application 
of  the  rules  must  vary  according  to  circumstances. 
People  are  forever  misunderstanding  what  land- 
scape gardening  is,  because  we  are  always  telling 
them  what  •  kinds  of  trees  to  plant  and  how  to 


156        THE  PLAN  OF  THE  PLACE 

plant  them.  But  the  planter  may  not  know  why 
he  plants. 

The  first  instruction  which  should  be  given  in 
landscape  gardening,  I  think,  is  this:  The  object 
of  landscape  gardening  is  to  make  a  picture.  All 
the  grading,  seeding,  planting,  are  incidental  and 
supplemental  to  this  one  central  idea.  The  green- 
sward is  the  canvas,  the  house  or  some  other- 
prominent  point  is  the  central  figure,  the  plant- 
ing completes  the  composition  and  adds  the  color. 

The  second  fundamental  idea,  I  think,  is  the 
principle  that  the  picture  should  have  a  landscape 
effect.  That  is,  it  should  be  nature -like.  Carpet- 
beds  are  masses  of  color,  not  pictures.  They  are 
the  little  garnishings  and  reliefs  which  are  to  be 
used  very  cautiously,  in  the  same  way  that  little 
eccentricities  and  conventionalisms  in  a  building 
should  never  be  more  than  very  minor  features. 

Every  other  concept  in  landscape  gardening  is 
subordinate  to  these  two.  They  are  explanations 
of  the  means  and  methods  of  making  the  picture. 
Some  of  the  most  important  of  these  secondary, 
yet  fundamental,  concepts  are  as  follows: 

Conceive  of  the  place  as  a  unit.  If  a  building 
is  not  pleasing,  ask  an  architect  to  improve  it. 
The  real  architect  will  study  the  building  as  a 
whole,  grasp  its  design  and  meaning,  and  suggest 
improvements  which  will  add  to  the  forcefulness 
of  the  entire  structure.  A  dabbler  would  add  a 
chimney  here,  a  window  there,  and  apply  various 


FUNDAMENTALS    OF   LANDSCAPE    GARDENING   157 

daubs  of  paint  to  the  building.  Each  of  these 
features  might  be  good  in  itself.  The  paints  might 
be  the  best  of  ochre,  ultramarine  or  paris  green, 
but  they  would  have  no  relation  to  the  building 
as  a  whole  and  would  be  only  ludicrous.  These 
two  examples  illustrate  the  difference  between 
landscape  gardening  and  the  scattering  over  the 
place  of  mere  ornamental  features. 

Have  some  one  central  and  emphatic  point  in 
the  picture.  A  picture  of  a  battle  draws  its  in- 
terest from  the  action  of  a  central  figure  or  group. 
The  moment  the  incidental  and  lateral  figures  are 
made  as  prominent  as  the  central  figures,  the 
picture  loses  emphasis,  life  and  meaning.  The 
borders  of  a  place  are  of  less  importance  than  its 
center.  Therefore 

Keep  the  center  of  the  place  open.  Frame 
and  mass  the  sides. 

Avoid  scattered  effects.  Flowers  and  high- 
colored  foliage  are  most  effective  against  a  back- 
ground of  green  foliage.  A  flower-bed  in  the 
middle  of  a  lawn  is  only  a  flower-bed;  against 
the  border -planting  it  is  not  only  a  flower-bed, 
but  it  may  be  also  a  structural  part  of  the 
picture. 

Flowers  are  incidents  in  a  landscape  picture. 
They  add  emphasis,  supply  color,  give  variety  and 
finish;  they  are  the  ornaments,  but  the  lawn  and 
the  mass -plantings  make  the  framework.  One 
flower  in  the  border,  and  made  an  incident  of  the 


158 


THE    PLAN    OP    THE    PLACE 


picture,  is  more  effective  than  twenty  flowers  in 
the  center  of  the  lawn. 

More  depends   upon  the  positions  which  plants 
occupy  with  reference   to  each    other  and    to    the 


140.    A  front  yard  planting. 

structural   design    of    the    place,   than   upon    the 
intrinsic  merits  of  the  plants  themselves. 

Landscape  gardening,  then,  is  the  embellish- 
ment of  grounds  in  such  a  way  that  they  will  have 
a  nature -like  or  landscape  effect. 

VARIOUS    SPECIFIC    EXAMPLES 

The  foregoing  remarks  will  mean  more  if  the 
reader  is  shown  some  concrete  examples.  I  have 
selected  a  few  cases,  not  because  they  are  the 


A    FRONT -YARD    PLANTING 


159 


best,  or  even  because  they  are  always  good 
enough  for  models,  but  because  they  lie  in  nay 
way  and  illustrate  what  I  desire  to  teach.  We 
will  first  look  at  a  very  ordinary  front  yard. 
It  contained  no  plants,  except  a  pear  tree  stand- 
ing near  the  corner  of  the  house.  Four  years 
later  sees  the  yard  as  shown  in  Fig.  140.  An 
exochorda  is  the  large  bush  in  the  very  fore- 
ground, and  the  porch  foundation  is  screened 
and  a  border  is  thereby  given  to  the  lawn.  The 
length  of  this  planting  from  end  to  end  is  about 


fourteen  feet,  with  a  projection  towards  the 
front  on  the  left  of  ten  feet.  In  the  bay  at 
the  base  of  this  projection  the  planting  is  only 
two  feet  wide,  and  from  here  it  gradually  swings 
out  to  the  steps,  eight  feet  wide.  The  promi- 


160        THE  PLAN  OF  THE  PLACE 

nent  large-leaved  plant  near  the  steps  is  a 
bramble,  Rubus  odoratus,  very  common  in  the 
neighborhood,  and  it  is  a  choice  plant  for 
decorative  planting.  The  plants  in  this  tangle  in 
front  of  the  porch  are  all  from  the  wild,  and 


142.    Diagram  of  back-yard.    50  x  90  ft. 

comprise  a  prickly  ash,  several  plants  of  two  wild 
osiers  or  dogwoods,  a  spice  bush,  rose,  wild  sun- 
flowers and  asters  and  golden -rods.  The  pro- 
montory at  the  left  is  a  more  ambitious  but  less 
effective  mass.  It  contains  an  exochcrda,  a  reed, 
variegated  elder,  sacaline,  variegated  dogwood, 
tansy,  and  a  young  tree  of  wild  crab.  At  the 


PLANTING    OP    SMALL    YARDS  161 

rear  of  the  plantation,  next  the  house,  one  sees 
the  pear  tree.  The  best  single  part  of  the  plant- 
ing is  the  reed  (Arundo  Donax)  overtopping  the 
exochorda  (not  shown  in  the  picture).  The  pho- 
tograph was  taken  early  in  summer,  before  the 
reed  had  become  conspicuous. 

A  ground  plan  of  this  planting  is  shown  in  Fig. 
141.  At  A  is  the  walk  and  B  the  steps.  An 
opening  at  D  serves  as  a  walk.  The  main  plant- 
ing, in  front  of  the  porch,  fourteen  feet  long, 
received  twelve  plants,  some  of  which  have  now 
spread  into  large  clumps.  At  1  is  a  large  bush  of 
osier,  Cornus  Baileyi. 
At  2  is  a  mass  of  Rubus 
odoratus ;  at  5  asters  and 
golden -rods;  at  3  a  clump 
of  wild  sunflowers.  The 
projecting  planting  on 

the    left    Comprises    about  143.     Cabin   opening  out 

ten    plants,   of    which   4       from  the  border  planting> 
is  exochorda,  6  is  arundo  or   reed,  at  the  back  of 
which   is  a  large  clump  of   sacaline,  and  7   is  a 
variegated -leaved  elder. 

A  back  yard  is  shown  in  Fig.  142.  The  owner 
wanted  a  tennis  court,  and  the  yard  is  so  small 
as  not  to  allow  of  wide  planting  at  the  borders. 
However,  something  could  be  done.  Upon  the 
left  is  the  weed-land  border,  mentioned  on  page 
146.  In  the  first  place,  a  good  lawn  was  made. 
In  the  second  place,  no  walks  or  drives  were 
K 


162 


THE    PLAN    OF    THE    PLACE 


laid  in  the  area.  The  drive  for  grocers'  wagon? 
and  coal  is  seen  in  the  rear,  ninety  feet  from 
the  house.  From  I  to  J  is  the  weedland,  sep- 
arating the  area  from  the  neighbor's  premises. 
Near  I  is  a  clump  of  roses.  At  K  is  a  large 
bunch  of  golden-rods.  H  marks  a  clump  of 
yucca.  G  is  a  cabin,  covered  with  vines  on  the 
front,  and  shown  in  Figs.  143.  144.  From  G 


144.    Rustic  bark-covered  cabin. 

to  F  is  an  irregular  border,  about  six  feet  wide, 
containing  barberries,  forsythias,  wild  elder,  and 
other  bushes.  D  E  is  a  screen  of  Russian  mul- 
berry, setting  off  the  clothes  yard  from  the  front 
lawn.  Near  the  back  porch,  at  the  end  of  the 
screen,  is  an  arbor  covered  with  wild  grapes, 
making  a  playhouse  for  the  children.  A  clump 
of  lilacs  stands  at  A.  At  B  is  a  vine-covered 
screen,  serving  as  a  hammock  support.  The 
lawn  made  and  the  planting  done,  it  was  next 
necessary  to  lay  the  walks.  These  are  wholly 
informal  affairs,  made  by  sinking  a  plank  ten 
inches  wide  into  the  ground  to  a  level  with  the 


145.     An  area  made  ready  for  the   seeding  and  planting. 


146.     Five   years'   growth  upon  the  above  area. 


164        THE  PLAN  OF  THE  PLACE 

sod.  The  border  plantings  of  this  yard  are  too 
straight  and  regular  for  the  most  artistic  results, 
but  such  was  necessary  in  order  not  to  encroach 
upon  the  central  space.  Yet  the  reader  will  no 
doubt  agree  that  this  yard  is  much  better  than 
it  could  be  made  by  any  system  of  scattered  and 
spotted  planting.  Let  him  imagine  how  a  glow- 
ing carpet -bed  would  look  set  down  in  the  cen- 
ter of  this  lawn! 

The  making  of  a  landscape  picture  is  well  illus- 
trated in  Figs.  145,  146.  The  former  shows  a  small 
clay  field  (seventy  five  feet  wide  and  three  hundred 
feet  deep),  with  a  barn  at  the  rear.  In  front  of 
the  barn  is  a  screen  of  willows.  The  observer  is 
looking  from  the  dwelling  house.  The  area  has 
been  plowed  and  seeded  for  a  lawn.  The  opera- 
tor has  then  marked  out  a  devious  line  upon 
either  border  with  a  hoe  handle,  and  all  the  space 
between  these  borders  has  been  gone  over  with  a 
garden  roller  to  mark  the  area  of  the  desired 
greensward.  The  borders  are  now  planted  with 
a  variety  of  small  trees,  bushes  and  herbs.  Five 
years  later  the  view  shown  in  Fig.  146  was  taken. 

A  back  yard  is  shown  in  Fig.  147.  It  is  approx- 
imately sixty  feet  square.  At  present  it  contains 
a  drive,  which  is  unnecessary,  expensive  to  keep 
in  repair,  and  destructive  of  any  attempt  to  make 
a  picture  of  the  area.  The  place  could  be  im- 
proved by  planting  it  somewhat  after  the  manner 
of  Fig.  148. 


D:T 


r 


149.     Plan  of  a  city  yard,  waiting  for  planting. 


PLANTING    A    CITY    YARD  167 

A  plan  of  a  city  lot  is  given  in  Fig.  149.  The 
area  is  fifty  by  one  hundred,  and  the  house  occu- 
pies the  greater  part  of  the  width.  It  is  level, 
but  the  surrounding  land  is  higher,  resulting  in  a 
sharp  terrace,  three  or  four  feet  high,  on  the  rear, 
E  D.  This  terrace  vanishes  at  C  on  the  right,  but 
extends  nearly  the  whole  length  of  the  other 
side,  gradually  diminishing  as  it  approaches  A. 
There  is  a  terrace  two  feet  high  extending  from 
A  to  B,  along  the  front.  Beyond  the  line  E  D 
is  the  rear  of  an  establishment  which  it  is  desired 
to  hide.  .Since  the  terraces  set  definite  borders 
to  this  little  place,  it  is  desirable  to  plant  the 
boundaries  rather  heavily.  If  the  adjoining  lawns 
were  on  the  same  level,  or  if  the  neighbors  would 
allow  one  area  to  be  merged  into  the  other  by 
pleasant  slopes,  the  three  yards  might  be  made  into 
one  picture  ;  but  the  place  must  remain  isolated. 

There  are  three  problems  of  structural  plant- 
ing in  the  place  :  to  provide  a  cover  or  screen 
at  the  rear ;  to  provide  lower  border  masses  on 
the  side  terraces  ;  to  plant  next  the  foundations 
of  the  house.  Aside  from  these  problems,  the 
grower  is  entitled  to  have  a  certain  number  of 
specimen  plants,  if  he  has  particular  liking  for 
given  types,  but  these  specimens  must  be  planted 
iu  some  relation  to  the  structural  masses,  and 
not  in  the  middle  of  the  lawn. 

The  following  shrubs  were  actually  selected  and 
planted.  The  place  is  in  central  New  York. 


168 


THE    PLAN    OP    THE    PLACE 


Shrubs  for  Tall  Background. 

2  Barberry,  Berberis  vulgaris  and  var.  purpurea, 

1  Cornus  Mas. 

2  Tall  deutzias. 

3  Lilacs. 

2  Mock    oranges,  Philadelphus   grandiflorus  and  P.  coro- 
narius. 

2  Variegated  elders. 

2  Elaeagnus,  E.  hortensis  and  E.  longipes. 

1  Exochorda. 

2  Hibiscuses. 
1  Privet. 

3  Viburnums. 
1  Snowball. 

1  Tartarian  honeysuckle. 

1  Silver  Bell,  Halesia  tetraptera. 

These  were  planted  on  the  sloping  bank  of  the 
terrace,  from  E  to  D.      The  terrace   has   an  in- 


150.    The  planting  of  the  terrace  in  Fig.  149. 

cline,  or  width,  of  about  three  feet.  Fig.  150 
shows  this  terrace  after  the  planting  was  done, 
looking  from  the  point  C, 


PLANTING    A    CITY    YARD  169 


Shrubs   of    Medium    Size,    Suitable  for    Side   Plantings  and 
Groups. 

3  Barberries,  Berberis  Thunbergii. 

3  Osier  dogwoods,  variegated. 

2  Japanese  quinces,    Cydonia  Japonica  and  C.  Maulei. 

4  Tall  deutzias. 

1  Variegated  elder. 

7  Weigelas,  assorted  colors. 

1  Rhodotypus. 

9  Spireas  of  medium  growth,  assorted 

1  Eubus  odoratus. 

1  Lonicera  fragrantissima. 

Most  of  these  shrubs  were  planted  in  a  border 
two  feet  wide  extending  from  B  to  C  D,  the  plant- 
ing beginning  about  ten  feet  back  from  the  street. 
Some  of  them  were  placed  upon  the  terrace  at  the 
left,  extending  from  E  one- fourth  of  the  distance 
to  A.  The  plants  were  set  about  two  feet  apart. 
A  strong  clump  was  placed  at  N  to  screen  the 
back  yard.  In  this  back  yard  a  few  small  fruit 
trees  and  a  strawberry  bed  were  planted. 

Low    Informal    Shrubs  for   Front    of  Porch    and   Banking 

Against  House. 
Deutzia  gracilis. 
Kerrias,  green  and  variegated. 

3  Daphne  Mezereum. 
3  Lonicera  Halliana. 

3  Rubus  phoanicolasius. 

3  Symphoricarpus  vulgaris. 

4  Mahonias. 

1  Ribes  aureum. 


170        THE  PLAN  OF  THE  PLACE 

1  Kibes  sanguineum. 
1  Rubus  cratsegifolius. 

1  Eubus  frutieosus  var.  laciniatus. 

These  bushes  were  planted  against  the  front  of 
the  house  (a  porch  on  a  high  foundation  extends 
to  the  right  from  0),  from  the  walk  around  to  P, 
and  a  few  of  them  were  placed  at  the  rear  of  the 
house. 

Specimen   Shrubs  for    mere  Ornament. 

Azalea. 

Rhododendron . 
'Rose. 

2  Hydrangeas. 
1  Snowball. 

1  each  Forsythia  suspensa  and  F.  viridissima. 

2  Flowering  almonds. 

These  were  planted  in  conspicuous  places  here 
and  there  against  the  other  masses. 

Here  are  one  hundred  excellent  and  interesting 
bushes  planted  in  a  yard  only  fifty  feet  wide  and 
one  hundred  feet  deep,  and  yet  the  place  has  as 
much  room  in  it  as  it  had  before !  There  is  abun- 
dant opportunity  along  the  borders  for  dropping 
in  cannas,  dahlias,  hollyhocks,  asters,  geraniums, 
coleuses,  and  other  brilliant  paints.  The  bushes 
will  soon  begin  to  crowd,  to  be  sure,  but  a  mass 
is  wanted;  but  the  narrowness  of  the  plantations 
will  allow  each  bush  to  develop  itself  laterally  to 
perfection.  If  the  borders  become  too  thick, 


A    CITY    YARD 


171 


however,  it  is  an  easy  matter  to  remove  some  of 
the  bushes;  but  they  probably  will  not.  Picture 
the  color  and  variety  and  life  in  that  little  yard! 
And  if  a  pigweed  now  and  then  gets  a  start  in 


Aygbs 

«««^*R5L .-— .-"-r'^ 


151.    Nine  shrubs. 


152. 


bank  of  verdure  and  color. 


the  border,  let  it  alone:  it  belongs  there!  Then 
picture  the  same  area  filled  with  disconnected, 
spotty,  dyspeptic  and  unspirited  flower -beds  and 
rose  bushes! 

Strong  and  bare  foundations  should  be  relieved 
by  heavy  planting.  Fill  the  corners  with  snow- 
drifts of  foliage.  The  corner  by  the  steps  is  a 
perennial  source  of  bad  temper.  The  lawn  mower 


172 


THE    PLAN    OF    THE    PLACE 


will   not   touch  it,   and   the  grass   has    to   be  cut 

with  a  butcher-knife.     Plant  a  burdock  in  it ! 

The  tennis -screen  may 
be  relieved  by  a  back- 
ground (Fig.  154)  and  a 
clump  of  ribbon- grass  is 
out  of  the  way  against  a 
post  (Fig.  155). 

A  word  should  be  said 
about  just  how  to  make  a 
group.  Dig  up  the  entire 
area.  Never  set  the  bushes 
V  in  holes  dug  in  the  sod 
(Fig.  156).  Spade  up  the 
ground,  set  the  bushes 

thick,  hoe  them  at  intervals,  and  then  let  them  go. 

If  you  do  not  like  the  bare  earth  between  them, 


153.     The  corner  by 
the  steps. 


154.     Tennis-screen  against  the  border-mass. 


HOW  TO  MAKE  THE  GROUPS       173 

sow  in  the  seeds  of  hardy  annual  flowers,  like 
phlox,  petunia,  alyssum  and  pinks.  The  person 
who  plants  his  shrubs  in  holes  in  the  sward  does 
not  seriously  mean  to  make  any  foliage  mass, 
and  it  is  likely  that  he  does  not  know  what  re- 
lation the  border- mass  has  to  artistic  planting.  I 
have  said  to  plant  the  bushes  thick.  This  is  for 


155.     Clump  of  ribbon-grass  against  the  clothes -post. 

quick  effect.  It  is  an  easy  matter  to  thin  the 
plantation  if  it  becomes  too  thick.  I  should  gen- 
erally plant  all  common  bushes  as  close  as  two 
feet  apart  each  way,  especially  if  I  get  most  of 
them  from  the  fields,  so  that  I  do  not  have  to 
buy  them.  Excellent  mass  effects  may  also  be 
obtained  by  cutting  well  established  plants  of 
sumac,  ailanthus,  basswood,  and  other  strong- 


174        THE  PLAN  OF  THE  PLACE  - 

growing  things,  to  the  ground  each  year,  for  the 
purpose  of  securing  the  stout  shoots.  Fig.  157 
will  give  the  hint. 

But  if  one  has  no  area  which  he  can  make  into 
a  lawn  and  upon  which  he  can  plant  such  verdur- 
ous masses,  what  then  may  he  do?  Even  then 
there  may  be  opportunity  for  a  little  neat  and 
artistic  planting.  Even  if  one  lives  in  a  rented 
house,  he  may  bring  in  a  bush  or  an  herb  from 
the  woods,  and  paint  a  picture  with  it.  Plant  it 
in  the  corner  by  the  steps,  in  front  of  the  porch. 


156.     Poor  little  things! 


at  the  corner  of  the  house, — almost  anywhere 
except  in  the  center  of  the  lawn.  Make  the 
ground  rich,  secure  a  strong  root  and  plant  it  with 
care;  then  wait.  The  little  clump  will  not  only 
have  a  beauty  and  interest  of  its  own,  but  it  will 
add  immensely  to  the  furniture  of  the  yard. 
About  its  base  one  may  plant  stray  bulbs  of  glow- 
ing tulips  or  dainty  snowdrops  and  lilies- of -the- 
valley;  and  these  may  be  followed  with  pansies 
and  phlox  and  other  simple  folk.  Very  soon  one 
finds  himself  deeply  interested  in  these  random 
and  detached  pictures,  and  almost  before  he  is 
aware  he  finds  that  he  has  rounded  off  the  corners 


MINOR    PICTURES 


175 


of  the  house,  made  snug  little  arbors  of  wild 
grapes  and  clematis,  covered  the  rear  fence  and 
the  outhouse  with  actinidia  and  bitter-sweet,  and 
has  thrown  in  dashes  of  color  with  hollyhocks, 
cannas  and  lilies,  and  has  tied  the  foundations  of 
the  buildings  to  the  greensward  by  low  strands  of 


• 


157.     Ailanthus  and  sunflowers. 


vines  or  deft  bits  of  planting.  He  soon  comes  to 
feel  that  flowers  are  most  expressive  of  the  best 
emotions  when  they  are  daintily  dropped  in  here 
and  there  against  a  background  of  foliage.  Pres- 
ently he  rebels  at  the  bold,  harsh  and  impudent 
designs  of  some  of  the  gardeners,  and  grows  into 
a  pure  and  subdued  love  of  plant  forms  and  ver- 
dure. He  may  still  like  the  weeping  and  cut- 
leaved  and  party-colored  trees  of  the  horticul- 


176  THE    PLAN    OF    THE    PLACE 

turist,  but  he  sees  that  their  best  effects  are  to  be 
had  when  they  are  planted  sparingly,  as  flowers 
are,  as  borders  or  promontories  of  the  structural 
masses. 

These  various  discussions  and  pictures  will  fix 
in  the  reader's  mind  the  importance  of  a  simple 
structural  design  for  the  home  grounds.  The 
essential  elements  of  this  design  are  the  open 
center  and  the  well -planted  sides.  It  is  par- 
ticularly important  that  the  view  to  and  from 
the  front  of  the  dwelling  house  be  kept  open, 
for  otherwise  there  can  be  little  conception  of 
pictorial  effect  in  the  composition.  It  is  a  grave 
mistake  to  cover  up  or  to  obscure  the  one  central 
and  important  feature  of  the  place. 

It  all  amounts  to  this,  that  the  best  planting, 
like  the  best  painting  and  the  best  music,  is 
possible  only  with  the  best  and  tenderest  feeling 
and  the  closest  living  with  nature.  One's  place 
grows  to  be  a  reflection  of  himself,  changing  as 
he  changes,  and  expressing  his  life  and  sympa- 
thies to  the  last. 


158.    Birds  build  their  nests  here, 


THE    GRADING 


177 


HOW    TO    MAKE    THE    IMPROVEMENTS, 

After  the  home  maker  has  devised  a  general 
scheme  or  plan  of  his  area,  he  will  inquire  how 
to  go  about  it  to  prepare  the  land  and  to  lay  out 
the  structural  design.  The  remarks  which  have 
been  made  in  Section  I,  respecting  the  prepara- 
tion, tillage  and  enriching  of  land,  will  apply 
to  the  lawn  and  the  ornamental  grounds,  but  a 


159.    An  ideal  bank  in  the  foreground. 

few  specific  remarks  may  be  useful.  The  reader 
should  also  consult  the  best  writings  upon  land- 
scape gardening  and  related  topics,  if  he  intends 
to  make  permanent  or  extensive  improvements. 
A  priced  list  of  current  American  horticultural 
books  will  be  found  in  the  third  edition  of  "The 
Horticulturist's  Rule- Book."  The  reader  may 
consult  with  profit  Long's  "Ornamental  Garden- 
ing for  Americans"  for  details  of  home-making. 
For  discussions  of  the  artistic  values  of  plants, 


178        THE  PLAN  OF  THE  PLACE 

Parson's  "Landscape    Gardening"    is    invaluable 
Other   books,   and   horticultural   periodicals,   may 
be  consulted. 

The  first  consideration  is  to  grade  the  land 
Grading  is  very  expensive,  especially  if  performed 
at  a  season  when  the  soil  is  heavy  with  moisture. 
Every  effort  should  be  made,  therefore,  to  reduce 
the  grading  to  a  minimum  and  still  secure  a 
pleasing  contour.  The  smaller  the  area,  the  more 
pains  must  be  taken  with  the  grading  ;  but  in 
any  plat  which  is  one  hundred  feet  or  more 
square,  very  considerable  undulations  may  be  left 
in  the  surface  with  excellent  effect.  In  lawns  of 
this  size,  or  even  half  this  size,  it  is  rarely  ad- 
visable to  have  them  perfectly  flat  and  level. 
They  should  slope  gradually  away  from  the  house, 
and  when  the  lawn  is  seventy- five  feet  or  more 
in  width,  it  may  be  slightly  crowning  with  good 
effect.  A  lawn  should  never  be  hollow, — that  is, 
lower  in  the  center  than  at  the  borders, — and 
broad  lawns  which  are  perfectly  flat  and  level 
often  appear  to  be  hollow.  A  slope  of  one  foot 
in  twenty  or  thirty  is  none  too  much  for  a 
pleasant  grade  in  lawns  of  some  extent. 

In  places  in  which  the  natural  slope  is  very 
perceptible,  there  is  a  tendency  to  terrace  the 
lawn  for  the  purpose  of  making  the  various 
parts  or  sections  of  it  more  or  less  level  and  plane. 
In  nearly  all  cases,  however,  a  terrace  is  objec- 
tionable. It  cuts  the  lawn  into  two  or  more  por- 


TERRACES 


179 


tions,  and  thereby  makes  it  look  smaller  and  spoils 
the  effect  of  the  picture.  Terraces  are  also  ex- 
pensive to  make  and  to  keep  in  order ;  and  a 
shabby  terrace  is  always  to  be  avoided.  When 
formal  effects  are  desired,  their  value  will  depend 


160.     Treatment  of   a   sloping  lawn. 


161.     Treatment  of   a  very  steep  bank. 

very  largely  upon  the  rigidity  of  the  lines  and  the 
care  with  which  they  are  maintained.  If  a  terrace 
is  necessary,  it  should  be  in  the  form  of  a  retaining 
wall  next  the  street,  or  else  it  should  lie  next  the 
building,  giving  as  broad  and  continuous  a  lawn 
as  possible.  It  should  be  remembered,  however, 
that  a  terrace  next  a  building  should  not  be  a 
part  of  the  landscape,  but  a  part  of  the  architec- 


180        THE  PLAN  OF  THE  PLACE 

ture :  that  is,  it  should  serve  as  a  base  to  the 
building.  It  will  at  once  be  seen,  therefore,  that 
terraces  are  most  in  place  against  those  buildings 
which  have  strong  horizontal  lines,  and 
they  are  not  suitable  against  buildings 
with  very  broken  lines  and  mixed  or 
gothic  features.  In  order  to  join  the 
terrace  to  the  building,  it  is  usually  ad- 
visable to  place  some 
architectural  feature 
upon  its  crown,  like 
a  balustrade,  and  to 


162.  Terrace  fall- 
ing too  suddenly  away 
from  the  building. 

ascend  it  b>  means  of  architectural  steps.  The 
terrace  elevation,  therefore,  becomes  a  part  of 
the  base  of  the  building,  and  the  top  of  it  is 
an  esplanade. 

A  simple  and  gradually  sloping  bank  can 
nearly  always  be  made  to  take  the  place  of  a  ter- 
race. For  example,  let  the  operator  make  a  ter- 
race, wij:h  sharp  angles  above  and  below,  in  the 
fall  of  the  year;  in  the  spring,  he  will  find  that 
nature  has  taken  the  matter  in  hand  and  the  upper 
angle  of  the  terrace  has  been  washed  away  and 
deposited  in  the  lower  angle,  and  the  result  is  the 
beginning  of  a  good  series  of  curves.  Fig.  159 


THE    MAKING    OP    TERRACES  181 

shows  an  ideal  slope,  with  its  double  curve,  com- 
prising a  convex  curve  on  the  top  of  the  bank, 
and  a  concave  curve  at  the  lower  part.  This  is 
a  slope  which  would  ordinarily  be  terraced,  but 
in  its  present  condition  it  is  a  part  ,of  the  land- 
scape picture.  It  can  be  mown  as  readily  as  any 
other  part  of  the  lawn,  and  takes  care  of  itself. 
A  terrace  always  obtrudes  a  hard  and  rigid  line, 
and  fastens  the  attention  upon  itself  rather  than 
upon  the  landscape. 

The  diagrams  in  Fig.  160  indicate  poor  and 
good  treatment  of  a  lawn.  The  terraces  are  not 
needed  in  this  case;  or  if  they  are,  they  should 
never  be  made  as  at  1.  The  same  dip  could  be 
taken  up  in  a  single  curved  bank,  as  at  3,  but  the 
better  way,  in  general,  is  to  give  the  treatment 
shown  in  2.  Fig.  161  shows  how  a  very  high 
terrace,  4,  can  be  supplaced  by  a  sloping  bank,  5. 
Fig.  162  shows  a  terrace  which  falls  away  too 
suddenly  from  the  house. 

In  grading  to  the  borders  of  the  place,  it  is  not 
always  necessary,  nor  even  desirable,  that  a  con- 
tinuous contour  should  be  obtained.  This  is 
especially  true  if  the  border  is  higher  or  lower 
than  the  lawn.  A  somewhat  irregular  line  of 
grade  will  appear  to  be  most  natural,  and  lend 
itself  best  to  effective  planting.  This  is  especially 
true  in  the  grade  to  water -courses,  which,  as  a 
rale,  should  be  more  or  less  devious  or  winding  ; 
and  the  adjacent  land  should,  therefore,  present 


182 


THE    PLAN    OF    THE    PLACE 


various  heights  and  contours.  It  is  not  always 
necessary,  however,  to  make  distinct  banks  along 
water -courses,  especially  if  the  place  is  small  and 


163.     Gradual  grade  to  a  water-course.     Before  planting. 

the  natural  lay  of  the  land  is  more  or  less  plane  or 
flat.  A  very  slight  depression,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
163,  may  answer  all  the  purposes  of  a  water 
grade  in  such  places. 

If  it  is  desirable  that  the  lawn  be  as  large 
and  spacious  as  possible,  then  the  boundary  of  it 
should  be  removed.  Take  away  the  fences,  curb- 
ing and  other  right  lines.  In  rural  places,  a 
sunken  fence  may  sometimes  be  placed  athwart  the 
lawn  at  its  farther  edge  for  the  purpose  of  keep- 
ing cattle  off  the  place,  and  thereby  bring  in  the 
adjacent  landscape.  Fig.  164  suggests  how  this 
may  be  done.  The  depression  near  the  foot  of 
the  lawn,  which  is  really  a  ditch  and  scarcely 
visible  from  the  upper  part  of  the  place  because 
of  the  slight  elevation  upon  its  inner  rim, 
answers  all  the  purposes  of  a  fence. 

Nearly  all  trees  are  injured  if  the  dirt  is  filled 
about  the  base  to  the  depth  of  a  foot  or  more. 


PROTECTING    TREES    IN    FILLED    LAND        183 

The  natural  crown  of  the  plant  should  be  exposed 
so  far  as  possible.  Oaks,  maples,  and,  in  fact, 
most  trees  will  lose  their  bark  near  the  crown  if 
the  dirt  is  piled  against  them;  and  this  is  espe- 
cially true  if  the  water  tends  to  settle  about  the 
trunks.  Fig.  165  shows  how  this  difficulty  may 
be  obviated.  A  well  is  stoned  up  about  the  tree, 
allowing  a  space  of  a  foot  or  two  upon  all  sides, 
and  tile  drains  are  laid  about  the  base  of  the  well, 
as  shown  in  the  diagram  at  the  right.  It  is  often 
possible  to  make  a  sloping  bank  just  above  the 
tree,  and  to  allow  the  ground  to  fall  away  from 
the  roots  of  the  tree  on  the  lower  side,  so  that 
there  is  no  well  or  hole  about  the  tree;  but  this 
is  possible  only  when  the  land  below  the  tree 
is  considerable  lower  than  that  above  it. 

WALKS  AND  DRIVES. — So  far  as  the  pic- 
ture in  the  landscape  is  concerned,  walks  and 
drives  are  blemishes.  Since  they  are  necessary, 


164.     The  sunken  fence. 


however,  they  must  form  a  part  of  the  landscape 
design.  They  should  be  as  few  as  possible,  not 
only  because  they  interfere  with  the  artistic  com- 
position, but  also  because  they  are  expensive  to 


184 


THE    PLAN    OF    THE    PLACE 


make  and  to  maintain.  Most  places  have  too 
many,  rather  than  too  few,  walks  and  drives. 
Small  city  areas  rarely  need  a  driveway  entrance, 
not  even  to  the  back  door.  The  back  yard  in  Fig. 
142  illustrates  this  point.  The  distance  from  the 
house  to  the  street  on  the  back  is  about  ninety 
feet,  yet  there  is  no  driveway  in  the  place.  The 
coal  and  provisions  are  carried  in;  and,  although 


1G.">.     Protecting  a  tree  in  filled  land. 

the  delivery  men  may  complain  at  first,  they  very 
soon  accept  the  inevitable.  It  is  not  worth  the 
while  to  maintain  a  drive  in  such  a  place  for  the 
convenience  of  truckmen  and  grocers.  Neither 
is  it  often  necessary  to  have  a  drive  in  the  front 
yard  if  the  house  is  within  seventy-five  or  one 
hundred  feet  of  the  street.  When  a  drive  is 
necessary,  it  should  enter,  if  possible,  at  the  side 
of  the  residence,  and  not  make  a  circle  in  the  front 
lawn.  This  remark  will  not  apply  to  large  areas 
of  a  half  acre  or  more. 


WALKS    AND    DRIVES 


185 


The  drives  and  walks  should  be  direct.  They 
should  go  where  they  appear  to  go,  and  should  be 
practically  the  shortest  distances  between  the  points 


166.    Various  types  of  curves,  only  g  being  admissible. 

to  be  reached.  Fig.  166  illustrates  some  of  the 
problems  connected  with  walks  to  the  front  door. 
A  common  type  of  walk  is  at  a,  and  is  a  nui- 


186  THE    PLAN    OF    THE    PLACE 

sance.  The  time  which  one  loses  in  going  around 
the  cameo -set  in  the  center  would  be  sufficient,  if 
conserved,  to  lengthen  a  man's  life  by  several 
months  or  a  year.  Such  a  device  has  no  merit  in 
art  or  convenience.  It  is  merely  an  effort  on  the 
part  of  the  maker  to  show  that  he  has  done  some- 
thing. Walk  c  is  better,  but  still  is  not  ideal, 
inasmuch  as  it  makes  too  much  of  a  right-angled 
curve,  and  the  pedestrian  desires  to  cut  across  the 
corner.  Such  a  walk,  also,  usually  extends  too  far 
beyond  the  corner  of  the  house  to  make  it  appear 
to  be  direct.  It  has  the  merit,  however,  of  leav- 
ing the  center  of  the  lawn  practically  untouched. 
The  curve  in  walk  d  is  ordinarily  unnecessary 
unless  the  ground  is  rolling.  In  small  places,  like 
this,  it  is  better  to  have  a  straight  walk  directly 
from  the  sidewalk  to  the  house.  In  fact,  this  is 
true  in  nearly  all  cases  in  which  the  lawn  is  not 
more  than  forty  to  seventy -five  feet  deep.  Plan 
e  is  also  inexcusable.  A  straight  walk  would  an- 
swer every  purpose  better.  Any  walk  which  passes 
the  house,  and  returns  to  it,  /,  is  inexcusable  un- 
less it  is  necessary  to  make  a  very  steep  ascent. 
If  most  of  the  traveling  is  in  one  direction  from 
the  house,  a  walk  like  g  may  be  the  most  direct 
and  efficient.  It  is  known  as  a  direct  curve,  and 
is  a  compound  of  a  concave  and  a  convex  curve. 
It  is  essential  that  any  walk  or  drive,  however 
long,  should  be  continuous  in  direction  and  design 
from  end  to  end.  Fig.  167  illustrates  a  long  drive 


CURBS    AND    EDGINGS  187 

which  contradicts  this  principle.  It  is  a  series  of 
meaningless  curves.  The  reason  for  these  curves 
is  the  fact  that  the  drive  was  extended  from  time 
to  time  as  new  houses  were  added  to  the  villa. 
The  reader  will  easily  perceive  how  all  the  kinks 
might  be  taken  out  of  this  drive  and  one  direct 
and  bold  curve  be  substituted. 

The  sides  of  walks  and  drives  may  often  be 
planted  with  shrubbery.  It  is  not  necessary  that 
they  always  have  prim  and  definite  borders. 
Fig.  168  illustrates  a  bank  of  foliage  which  breaks 
up  the  hard  line  of  a  walk,  and  serves  also  as  a 
border  for  the  growing  of  flowers  and  interesting 
specimens.  This  walk  is  also  characterized  by  the 
absence  of  high  and  hard  borders. 

Even  in  cities,  it  is  not  always  necessary  that 
stone  copings  be  used.  Fig.  169  illustrates  this 
fact,  and  also  shows  how  the  parking  between  the 
walk  and  the  street  may  be  effectively  planted. 
Upon  the  draining  of  residence  streets,  a  well- 
known  landscape  gardener,  O.  C.  Simon ds,  writes 
as  follows  in  "Park  and  Cemetery:" 

"The  surface  drainage  is  something  that  inter- 
ests us  whenever  it  rains  or  when  the  snow  melts. 
It  has  been  customary  to  locate  catch -basins  for 
receiving  the  surface  water  at  street  intersections. 
This  arrangement  causes  most  of  the  surface 
water  from  both  streets  to  run  past  the  crossings, 
making  it  necessary  to  depress  the  pavement,  so 
that  one  must  step  down  and  up  in  going  from 


SUBURBAN    STREETS 


189 


one  side  of  a  street  to  the  other,  or  else  a  passage- 
way for  the  water  must  be  made  through  the 
crossing.  It  may  be  said  that  a  step  down  to  the 
pavement  and  up  again  to  the  sidewalk  at  the 
street  intersections  is  of  110  consequence,  but  it  is 
really  more  elegant  and  satisfactory  to  have  the 
walk  practically  continuous.  With  the  catch- 


168.     Informal  treatment  of   a  walk. 

basin  at  the  corner,  the  stoppage  of  the  inlet,  or 
a  great  fall  of  rain,  sometimes  covers  the  crossing 
with  water,  so  that  one  must  either  wade  or  go 
out  of  his  way.  With  catch -basins  placed  in  the 
center  of  the  blocks,  or,  if  the  blocks  are  long,  at 
some  distance  from  the  crossing,  the  intersections 


SUBURBAN    STREETS  191 

can  be  kept  relatively  high  and  dry.  Roadways 
are  generally  made  crowning  in  the  center,  so  that 
water  runs  to  the  sides,  but  frequently  the  fall 
lengthwise  of  the  roadway  is  less  than  it  should 
be.  City  engineers  are  usually  inclined  to  make 
the  grade  along  the  length  of  a  street  as  nearly 
level  as  possible.  Authorities  who  have  given  the 
subject  of  roads  considerable  study  recommend  a 
fall  lengthwise  of  not  less  than  one  foot  in  one 
hundred  and  twenty -five,  nor  more  than  six  feet 
in  one  hundred.  Such  grades  are  not  always  fea- 
sible, but  a  certain  amount  of  variation  in  level 
can  usually  be  made  in  a  residence  street  which 
will  make  it  much  more  pleasing  in  appearance, 
and  have  certain  practical  advantages  in  keeping 
the  street  dry.  The  water  is  usually  confined  tcr 
the  edge  of  the  pavement  by  curbing,  which  may 
rise  anywhere  from  four  to  fourteen  inches 
above  the  surface.  This  causes  all  the  water  fall- 
ing on  the  roadway  to  seek  the  catch -basin  and 
be  wasted,  excepting  for  its  use  in  flushing  the 
sewer.  If  the  curbing,  which  is  really  unneces- 
sary in  most  cases,  were  omitted,  much  of  the 
surface  water  would  soak  into  the  ground  between 
the  sidewalk  and  the  pavement,  doing  much  good 
to  trees,  shrubs  and  grass.  The  roots  of  the  trees 
naturally  extend  as  far,  or  farther,  than  their 
branches,  and  for  their  good  the  ground  under 
the  pavement  and  sidewalk  should  be  supplied 
with  a  certain  amount  of  moisture. 


192  THE    PLAN    OF    THE    PLACE 

"The  arrangement  made  for  the  removal  of 
surface  water  from  the  street  must  also  take  care 
of  the  surplus  water  from  adjacent  lots,  so  there 
is  a  practical  advantage  in  having  the  level  of  the 
street  lower  than  that  of  the  ground  adjoining. 
The  appearance  of  houses  and  home  grounds  is 
also  much  better  when  they  are  higher  than  the 
street,  and  for  this  reason  it  is  usually  desirable  to 
keep  the  latter  as  low  as  possible  and  give  the 
underground  pipes  sufficient  covering  to  protect 
them  from  frost.  Where  the  ground  is  high  and 
the  sewers  very  deep  the  grades  should,  of  course, 
be  determined  with  reference  to  surface  conditions 
only.  It  sometimes  happens  that  this  general 
arrangement  of  the  grades  of  home  grounds, 
which  is  desirable  on  most  accounts,  causes  water 
from  melting  snow  to  flow  over  the  sidewalk  in 
the  winter  time,  where  it  may  freeze  and  be  dan- 
gerous to  pedestrians.  A  slight  depression  of  the 
lot  away  from  the  sidewalk  and  then  an  ascent 
toward  the  house  would  usually  remedy  this  diffi- 
culty, and  also  make  the  house  appear  higher. 
Sometimes,  however,  a  pipe  should  be  placed 
underneath  the  sidewalk  to  allow  water  to  reach 
the  street  from  inside  of  the  lot  line.  The  aim  in 
surface  drainage  should  always  be  to  keep  the 
traveled  portions  of  the  street  in  the  most  perfect 
condition  for  use.  The  quick  removal  of  surplus 
water  from  sidewalks,  crossings,  and  roadways 
will  help  to  insure  this  result." 


EDGES    OF    WALKS  193 

These  remarks  concerning  the  curbings  and 
Lard  edges  of  city  streets  may  also  be  applied  to 
walks  and  drives  in  small  grounds.  Fig.  170,  for 
example,  shows  the  common  method  of  treating 
the  edge  of  a  walk,  by  making  a  sharp  and  sheer 
elevation.  This  edge  needs  constant  trimming, 
else  it  becomes  unshapely;  and  this  trimming 
tends  to  widen  the  walk.  For  general  purposes, 
a  border,  like  that  shown  in  Fig.  171,  is  better. 
The  sod  rolls  over  until  it  meets  the  walk,  and  the 
lawn-mower  is  able  to  keep  it  in  condition.  If 
it  becomes  more  or  less  rough  and  irregular,  it  is 
pounded  down. 

If  it  is  thought  necessary  to  trim  the  edges  of 
walks  and  drives,  then  one  of  the  various  kinds 
of  sod -cutters  which  are  sold  by  dealers  may  be 
used  for  the  purpose,  or  an  old  hoe  may  have  its 
shank  straightened  and  the  corners  of  the  blade 
rounded  off,  as  shown  in  Fig.  172,  and  this  will 
answer  all  purposes  of  the  common  sod -cutter ; 
or,  a  sharp,  straight -edged  spade  may  sometimes 
be  used.  The  loose  overhanging  grass  on  these 
edges  is  ordinarily  cut  by  large  shears  made  for 
the  purpose. 

Walks  and  drives  should  be  laid  in  such  direc- 
tion that  they  will  tend  to  drain  themselves ;  but 
if  it  is  necessary  to  have  gutters,  these  should  be 
deep  and  sharp  at  the  bottom,  for  the  water  then 
draws  together  and  tends  to  keep  the  gutter  clean. 
A  shallow  and  rounded  gutter  does  not  clean 


194 


THE    PLAN    OF    THE    PLACE 


itself;  it  is  very  apt  to  fill  with  weeds,  and  ve- 
hicles often  drive  in  it.  Fig.  173  shows  a  catch- 
basin  at  the  left  of  a  walk  or  drive,  and  the  tile 
laid  underneath  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  away 
the  surface  water. 

The  best  materials  for  walks  are  cement,  or 
artificial  stone,  and  flagging.  In  many  soils,  how- 
ever, there  is  enough  binding  material  in  the  land 


170.     The  common  type  of  Dorder  for  a 


171.    A  better  border. 


172.     Sod  cutter. 


to  make  a  good  walk  without  the  addition  of  any 
other  material.  Gravel,  cinders,  ashes,  and  the 
like,  are  nearly  always  inadvisable,  for  they  are 
apt  to  be  loose  in  dry  weather  and  sticky  in  wet 
weather.  In  the  laying  of  artificial  stone,  it  is 
very  important  that  the  walk  be  well  drained  by 
a  layer  of  a  foot  or  two  of  broken  stone  or  brick- 


MAKING    THE    PLAN  195 

bats,  unless  the  walk  is  upon  loose  and  leachy 
land.  In  back  yards,  it  is  often  best  not  to  have 
any  well -denned  walk.  A  ramble  across  the  sod 
may  be  as  good.  For  a  back  walk,  over  which 
deliverymen  are  to  travel,  one  of  the  very  best 
means  is  to  sink  a  foot -wide  plank  into  the  land 
on  a  level  with  the  surface  of  the  sod;  and  it  is 
not  necessary  that  the  walk  be  perfectly  straight. 
These  walks  do  not  interfere  with  the  work  of  the 
lawn  mower,  and  they  take  care  of  themselves. 
When  the  plank  rots,  at  the  expiration  of  five 
to  ten  years,  the  plank  is  taken  up  and  another 


173.     Draining  the  gutter. 

one  dropped  in  its  place.      This  ordinarily  makes 
the  best  kind  of  a  walk  alongside  a  rear  border. 

MAKING  THE  PLAN. — It  is  often  desirable  to  have 
a  definite  plan  on  paper  for  the  location  of  the 
leading  features  of  the  place.  These  features  are 
the  residence,  the  out -houses,  the  walks  and 
drives,  the  border  planting,  flower-garden,  vege- 
table garden  and  fruit  garden.  It  should  not  be 
expected  that  the  map  plan  can  be  followed  in 
every  detail,  but  it  will  serve  as  a  general  guide; 
and  if  it  is  made  upon  a  large  enough  scale,  the 
different  kinds  of  plants  can  be  located  in  their 


196 


THE    PLAN    OP    THE    PLACE 


proper  positions,  and  a  record  of  the  place  be 
kept.  It  is  nearly  always  unsatisfactory,  for  both 
owner  and  designer,  if  a  plan  of  the  place  is  made 
without  a  personal  inspection  of  the  area.  Lines 
which  look  well  upon  a  map  may  not  adjust  them- 
selves readily  to  the  varying  contours  of  the  place 
itself,  and  the  location  of  the  features  inside  the 


174.     Diagram  of  a  back  yard.  175.     Plan  of  a  rough  area. 

place  will  depend  also  in  a  very  large  measure 
upon  the  objects  which  lie  outside  it.  For  ex- 
ample, all  interesting  and  bold  views  should  be 
brought  into  the  place,  and  all  unsightly  objects 
in  the  immediate  vicinity  should  be  planted  out. 
Fig.  174  illustrates  a  plan  of  a  back  yard  of  a 
narrow  city  lot,  showing  the  heavy  border  plant- 
ing of  trees  and  shrubs,  with  the  skirting  border 
of  flowers.  In  the  front  are  two  large  trees  which 


MAPS    AND    PLANS  197 

are  desired  for  shade.  It  will  readily  be  seen  from 
this  plan  how  extensive  the  area  for  flowers  be- 
comes when  they  are  placed  upon  such  a  devious 
border.  More  color  effect  can  be  got  from  such 
an  arrangement  of  the  flowers  than  could  be 
secured  if  the  whole  area  were  planted  to  flower- 
beds. Fig.  175  illustrates  a  map  plan  of  a  very 
rough  piece  of  ground.  The  sides  of  the  place 
are  high,  and  it  becomes  necessary  to  carry  a  walk 
through  the  middle  area;  and  upon  either  side  of 
the  front,  it  skirts  the  banks.  Such  a  plan  is 
usually  unsightly  on  paper,  but  may  nevertheless 
fit  special  cases  very  well.  The  plan  is  inserted 
here  for  the  purpose  of  illustrating  the  fact  that  a 
plan  which  will  work  upon  the  ground  does  not 
necessarily  work  upon  a  map.  In  charting  a  place, 
it  is  important  to  locate  the  points  from  which  the 
walks  are  to  start,  and  at  which  they  are  to  emerge 
from  the  grounds.  These  two  points  are  then 
joined  by  direct  and  simple  curves,  and  alongside 
the  walks,  especially  in  angles  or  bold  curves, 
planting  may  be  inserted. 

A  suggestion  for  school  premises  upon  a  four- 
corners,  and  which  the  pupils  enter  from  three 
directions,  is  made  in  Fig.  176.  The  two  play- 
grounds are  separated  by  a  broken  group  of 
bushes  extending  from  the  building  to  the  rear 
boundary;  but  in  general,  the  spaces  are  kept 
open,  and  the  heavy  border -masses  clothe  the 
place  and  make  it  home -like.  The  lineal  extent 


198 


THE    PLAN    OF    THE    PLACE 


of  the  group  margins  is  astonishingly  large,  and 
along  all  these  margins  flowers  may  be  planted,  if 
desired . 

If  there  is  only  six  feet  between  a  school -house 
and  the  fence,  there  is  still  room  for  a  border  of 
shrubs.  This  border  should  be  between  the  walk 


J   t 


176.     Suggestion  for  a  school-ground   upon  a  four  corners. 

and  the  fence, — on  the  very  boundary, — not  be- 
tween the  walk  and  the  building,  for  in  the  latter 
case  the  planting  divides  the  premises  and  weakens 
the  effect.  A  space  two  feet  wide  will  allow  of 
an  irregular  wall  of  bushes;  and  if  the  area  is 
one  hundred  feet  long,  thirty  to  fifty  kinds  of 
shrubs  and  flowers  can  be  grown  to  perfection, 


SCHOOL    GROUNDS  199 

and  the  school  -  grounds  will  be  practically  no 
smaller  for  the  plantation.  In  country  districts 
and  large  grounds,  effects  like  that  in  Fig.  146 
can  be  obtained  with  little  trouble.  If  there  is  no 
money  with  which  to  buy  shrubs,  they  can  be  got 
from  adjacent  woods  and  fields  and  gardens;  and 
such  plants  usually  thrive  best,  because  they  are 
hardy  and  well  adapted  to  the  region.  One  week's 
well  directed  work  in  each  year,  by  one  man, 
coupled  with  donations  of  plants  from  private 
yards,  could  make  every  school -yard  in  the  land 
a  little  paradise. 

MAKING  A  LAWN. — The  first  thing  to  do  in  mak- 
ing a  lawn  is  to  establish  the  proper  grade.  This 
should  be  done  with  the  greatest  care,  from  the 
fact  that  when  a  lawn  is  once  made,  its  level  and 
contour  should  never  be  changed.  The  next  im- 
portant step  is  to  prepare  the  ground  deeply  and 
thoroughly.  The  permanence  of  the  sod  will 
depend  very  largely  upon  the  richness  and  prepa- 
ration of  the  soil  in  the  beginning.  The  soil 
should  be  deep  and  porous,  so  that  the  roots  will 
strike  far  into  it,  and  be  enabled  thereby  to  with- 
stand droughts  and  cold  winters.  The  best  means 
of  deepening  the  soil,  as  already  explained,  is  by 
tile -draining,  but  it  can  also  be  done  by  the  use 
of  the  subsoil  plow  and  by  trenching.  Since 
the  lawn  cannot  be  refitted,  however,  the  subsoil 
is  apt  to  fall  back  into  a  hard-pan  in  a  few  years 
if  it  has  been  subsoiled  or  trenched,  whereas  a 


200        THE  PLAN  OF  THE  PLACE 

tile  drain  affords  a  permanent  amelioration  of  the 
under  soil.  Soils  which  are  naturally  loose  and 
porous  may  not  need  this  extra  attention.  In 
fact,  lands  which  are  very  loose  and  sandy  may 
require  to  be  packed  or  cemented  rather  than 
loosened.  One  of  the  best  means  of  doing  this 
is  to  fill  them  with  humus,  so  that  the  water  will 
not  leach  through  them  rapidly.  Nearly  all  lands 
which  are  designed  for  lawns  are  greatly  benefited 
by  heavy  dressings  of  manure  thoroughly  worked 
into  them  in  the  beginning. 

The  first  grading  operation  is  the  plowing  of 
the  surface.  If  the  area  is  large  enough  to  admit 
a  team,  the  surface  is  worked  down  by  means 
of  harrows  of  various  kinds.  Afterwards  it  is 
leveled  by  means  of  shovels  and  hoes,  and  finally 
by  garden  rakes.  The  more  finely  and  completely 
the  soil  is  pulverized,  the  quicker  the  lawn  may  be 
obtained,  and  the  more  permanent  are  the  results. 

The  best  grass  for  the  body  or  foundation  of 
lawns  in  the  North  is  June -grass  or  Kentucky 
blue  grass  (Poa  pratensis) .  Inasmuch  as  we  de- 
sire to  obtain  many  very  fine  stalks  of  grass 
rather  than  a  few  large  ones,  it  is  essential  that 
the  seed  be  sown  very  thick.  Pains  should  also 
be  taken  to  distribute  the  seed  evenly  over  the 
area,  thereby  avoiding  bare  and  weedy  spots. 
From  three  to  four  bushels  to  the  acre  is  the 
ordinary  application  of  grass  seed.  The  question 
as  to  whether  white  clover  or  other  seed  should 


MAKING    A    LAWN  201 

be  sown  with  the  grass  seed,  is  very  largely  a 
personal  one,  depending  upon  whether  the  owner 
wants  white  clover  in  his  lawn  or  not.  Some 
persons  like  it,  and  others  do  not.  If  it  is  de- 
sired, it  may  be  sown  directly  after  the  grass 
seed  is  sown,  at  the  rate  of  one  to  three  quarts 
to  the  acre.  For  particular  purposes  and  for 
personal  tastes,  various  other  grasses  may  be  used 
for  lawns.  Various  kinds  of  lawn  mixtures  are 
upon  the  market. 

In  most  cases,  the  June- grass  germinates  and 
grows  somewhat  slowly,  and  it  is  generally  advis- 
able to  sow  four  or  five  quarts  of  timothy  grass  to 
the  acre  with  the  June -grass  seed.  The  timothy 
comes  on  quickly  and  makes  a  green  the  first  year, 
and  the  June- grass  soon  crowds  it  out.  It  is  not 
advisable,  as  a  rule,  to  sow  grain  in  the  lawn  as  a 
nurse  to  the  grass.  If  the  land  is  well  prepared 
and  the  seed  is  sown  in  the  cool  part  of  the  year, 
the  grass  ought  to  grow  much  better  without  the 
other  crops  than  with  them.  Lands  which  are 
hard  and  lacking  in  nitrogen  may  be  benefited  if 
four  or  five  quarts  of  crimson  clover  are  sown  with 
the  grass  seed.  This  will  make  a  green  the  first 
year,  and  will  break  up  the  subsoil  by  its  deep 
roots  and  supply  nitrogen,  and  being  an  an- 
nual plant  it  does  not  become  troublesome.  In 
the  southern  states,  where  June -grass  does  not 
thrive,  Bermuda -grass  is  the  leading  species  used 
for  lawns;  although  there  are  two  or  three  others, 


202        THE  PLAN  OF  THE  PLACE 

like  the  goose-grass  of  Florida,  which  may  be  used 
in  special  localities. 

The  lawn  should  be  seeded  when  the  land  is 
moist  and  the  weather  comparatively  cool.  It  is 
ordinarily  most  advisable  to  grade  the  lawn  in  late 
summer  or  early  fall,  because  the  land  is  then 
comparatively  dry  and  can  be  moved  cheaply. 
The  surface  can  also  be  got  in  condition,  per- 
haps, for  sowing  late  in  September  or  early  in 
October  in  the  North;  or,  if  the  surface  has  re- 
quired much  filling,  it  is  well  to  leave  it  in  a 
somewhat  unfinished  state  until  spring,  in  order 
that  the  soft  places  may  settle  and  then  be  refilled 
before  the  seeding  is  done.  If  the  seed  can  be 
sown  early  in  the  fall,  before  the  rains  come, 
the  grass  should  be  large  enough,  except  in 
northernmost  localities,  to  withstand  the  winter; 
but  it  is  generally  most  desirable  to  sow  in  very 
early  spring.  If  the  land  has  been  thoroughly 
prepared  in  the  fall,  the  seed  may  be  sown  on 
one  of  the  late  light  snows  in  spring,  and  as  the 
snow  melts  the  seed  is  carried  into  the  land,  and 
germinates  very  quickly.  If  the  seed  is  sown 
when  the  land  is  loose  and  workable,  it  should  be 
raked  in;  and  if  the  weather  promises  to  be  dry, 
perhaps  the  surface  should  be  rolled. 

The  lawn  will  ordinarily  produce  a  heavy  crop 
of  weeds  the  first  year,  especially  if  much  stable 
manure  has  been  used.  The  weeds  need  not  be 
pulled,  unless  such  vicious  intruders  as  docks  or 


WEEDS    IN    LAWNS  203 

other  perennial  plants  gain  a  foothold;  but  the 
area  should  be  mown  frequently  with  a  lawn- 
mower.  The  weeds,  being  annuals,  will  die  at  the 
approach  of  cold,  and  they  are  kept  down  by  the 
use  of  the  lawn-mower,  while  the  grass  is  not 
injured.  As  soon  as  the  grass  begins  to  fill  the 
land,  the  weeds  are  crowded  out.  It  rarely 
happens  that  every  portion  of  the  lawn  will  have 
an  equal  catch  of  grass.  The  bare  or  sparsely 
seeded  places  should  be  sown  again  every  fall  and 
spring  until  the  lawn  is  finally  complete. 

Lawns  which  have  a  heavy  cover  of  sod  are 
rarely  troubled  with  weeds.  It  is  commonly  said 
that  weeds  run  out  the  grass;  the  fact  is  that  grass 
is  run  out  by  poor  soil,  insufficient  seeding,  care- 
less preparation  of  the  land,  or  some  other  fault, 
and  the  weeds  take  the  opportunity  to  fill  the 
vacant  places.  The  proper  way  to  keep  the  weeds 
out  of  the  lawn,  therefore,  is  not  primarily  to  pull 
the  weeds,  but  to  put  in  more  grass.  If  a  dande- 
lion is  pulled,  the  hole  must  be  filled  or  some  weed 
may  grow  therein.  The  remedy,  therefore,  is  to 
rake  over  the  thin  places  vigorously  with  a  steel 
garden  rake,  apply  commercial  fertilizers,  and  sow 
more  grass  seed;  and  this,  as  a  rule,  will  correct 
.the  difficulty.  Lawns  of  several  acres  which  be- 
come thin  and  mossy  may  be  treated  in  essentially 
the  same  way  by  dragging  them  with  a  spike-tooth 
harrow  in  early  spring  as  soon  as  the  land  is 
dry  enough  to  hold  a  team.  Chemical  fertilizers 


204        THE  PLAN  OF  THE  PLACE 

and  grass  seed  are  now  sown  liberally,  and  the 
area  is  perhaps  dragged  again,  although  this  is  not 
always  essential;  and  then  the  roller  is  applied  to 
bring  the  surface  into  a  smooth  condition.  To 
plow  up  these  poor  lawns  is  to  renew  all  the  battle 
with  weeds,  and  really  to  make  no  progress;  for, 
so  long  as  the  contour  is  correct,  the  lawn  may  be 
repaired  by  these  surface  applications.  If  lawns 
are  to  be  kept  in  the  very  best  condition  it  is 
usually  necessary,  in  this  country,  to  patch  them 
every  year  by  this  method  of  re -seeding. 

The  mowing  of  the  lawn  should  begin  as  soon 
as  the  grass  is  tall  enough  in  the  spring,  and  con- 
tinue at  the  necessary  intervals  throughout  the 
summer.  The  most  frequent  mowings  are  needed 
early  in  the  season,  when  the  grass  is  growing 
rapidly.  If  it  is  mown  frequently — say  once  or 
twice  a  week — in  the  periods  of  most  vigorous 
growth,  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  rake  off  the 
mowings.  In  fact,  it  is  preferable  to  leave  the 
grass  upon  the  lawn,  to  be  driven  into  the  surface 
by  the  rains  and  to  afford  a  mulch.  It  is  only 
when  the  lawn  has  been  neglected  and  the  grass 
has  got  so  high  that  it  becomes  unsightly  upon  the 
lawn,  that  it  is  necessary  to  take  it  off.  The  grass 
should  be  rather  long  when  it  goes  into  the  winter.. 
The  last  two  months  of  open  weather  are  times  in 
which  the  grass  makes  comparatively  small  growth, 
and  it  tends  to  lop  down  and  to  cover  the  surface 
densely,  which  it  should  be  allowed  to  do.  The 


RAKING    LAWNS  205 

best  lawn  mowers,  in  the  writer's  opinion,  are  those 
with  large  wheels  and  which  cut  very  wide  swaths. 
In  his  own  practice,  he  uses  no  machine  which 
cuts  less  than  eighteen  inches. 

As  a  rule,  it  is  not  necessary  to  rake  the  leaves 
off  lawns  in  the  fall.  They  afford  an  excellent 
inulch,  and  during  the  autumn  months  the  leaves 
upon  the  lawn  are  among  the  handsomest  features 
of  the  landscape.  The  leaves  generally  blow  off 
after  a  time,  and  if  the  place  has  been  constructed 
with  an  open  center  and  heavily  planted  sides, 
the  leaves  will  be  caught  in  these  masses  of  trees 
and  shrubs  and  there  afford  an  excellent  mulch. 
The  ideal  landscape  planting,  therefore,  takes  care 
of  itself  to  a  very  large  extent.  It  is  bad  economy 
to  burn  the  leaves,  especially  if  one  has  her- 
baceous borders,  roses  and  other  plants  which 
need  a  mulch.  When  the  leaves  are  taken  off  the 
borders  in  the  spring,  they  should  be  piled  with 
the  manure  or  other  refuse  and  there  allow  to  pass 
into  compost.  (Pages  115,  116.) 

If  the  land  has  been  well  prepared  in  the  begin- 
ning, it  is  ordinarily  unnecessary  to  cover  the 
lawn  with  manure  in  the  fall.  The  common  prac- 
tice of  covering  grass  with  manure  should  be  dis- 
couraged because  the  material  is  unsightly  and 
unsavory,  and  the  same  results  can  be  got  with 
the  use  of  commercial  fertilizers  and  by  not  raking 
the  lawn  too  clean  of  the  mowings  of  the  grass. 

The   common  watering  of    lawns  by  means   of 


206        THE  PLAN  OF  THE  PLACE 

lawn  sprinklers  usually  does  more  harm  than  good. 
This  results  from  the  fact  that  the  watering  is 
generally  done  in  clear  weather,  and  the  water  is 
thrown  through  the  air  in  very  fine  spray,  so  that 
a  considerable  part  of  it  is  lost  in  vapor.  The 
ground  is  also  hot,  and  the  water  does  not  pass 
deep  into  the  soil.  If  the  lawn  is  watered  at  all, 
it  should  be  soaked;  turn  on  the  hose  at  nightfall 
and  let  it  run  until  the  land  is  wet  as  deep  as 
it  is  dry,  then  move  the  hose  to  another  place. 
A  thorough  soaking  like  this,  once  or  twice  in  a 
dry  summer,  will  do  more  good  than  sprinkling 
every  day.  If  the  land  is  deeply  prepared  in  the 
first  place,  so  that  the  roots  strike  far  into  the 
soil,  there  is  rarely  need  of  watering  unless  the 
place  is  arid  or  the  season  unusually  dry.  The 
surface  watering  by  means  of  lawn  sprinklers 
engenders  a  tendency  for  the  roots  to  start  near 
the  surface,  and  therefore  the  more  the  lawn  is 
watered,  the  greater  is  the  necessity  for  it. 

Every  spring  the  lawn  should  be  firmed  by 
means  of  a  roller,  or  if  the  area  is  small,  by 
means  of  a  pounder  or  the  back  of  a  spade  in  the 
hands  of  a  vigorous  man.  The  lawn-mower  itself 
tends  to  pack  the  surface.  If  there  are  little 
irregularities  in  the  surface,  caused  by  depres- 
sions of  an  inch  or  so,  and  the  highest  places 
are  not  above  the  contour -line  of  the  lawn,  the 
surface  may  be  brought  to  level  by  spreading 
fine,  mellow  soil  over  it,  thereby  filling  up  the 


SODDING    LAWNS  207 

depressions.  The  grass  will  quickly  grow  through 
this  soil. 

Persons  who  desire  to  get  a  lawn  very  quickly 
may  sod  the  area  rather  than  seed  it.  Sodding, 
however,  is  expensive,  and  is  to  be  used  only  about 
the  borders  of  the  place,  near  buildings,  or  in 
areas  in  which  the  owner  can  afford  to  expend 
considerable  money.  The  best  sod  is  that  which 
is  secured  from  an  old  pasture,  and  for  two  or 
three  reasons.  In  the  first  place,  it  is  the  right 
kind  of  grass,  the  June -grass  being  the  species 
which  oftenest  runs  into  pastures  and  crowds  out 
other  plants.  Again,  it  has  been  so  closely  eaten 
down,  especially  if  it  has  been  pastured  by  sheep, 
that  it  has  made  a  very  dense  and  well -filled  sod, 
which  can  be  rolled  up  in  thin  layers.  In  the 
third  place,  the  surface  soil  in  such  old  pastures  is 
likely  to  be  rich  from  the  droppings  of  animals. 

In  taking  sod,  it  is  important  that  it  be  cut 
very  thin.  An  inch  and  a  half  thick  is  usually 
ample.  It  is  ordinarily  rolled  up  in  strips  which 
are  a  foot  wide  and  of  any  length  which  will 
allow  the  rolls  to  be  handled  by  one  or  two  men. 
A  foot -wide  board  is  laid  upon  the  turf,  and 
the  sod  cut  along  either  edge  of  it.  One  person 
then  stands  upon  the  strip  of  sod  and  rolls  it  to- 
wards himself  while  another  cuts  it  loose  with  a 
spade,  as  shown  in  Fig.  177.  When  the  sod  is 
laid,  it  is  unrolled  upon  the  land  and  then  firmly 
beaten  down.  Land  which  is  to  be  sodded  should 


208        THE  PLAN  OF  THE  PLACE 

be  soft  on  top,  so  that  the  sod  can  be  well  pounded 
into  it.  If  the  sod  is  not  well  pounded  down,  it 
will  settle  unevenly  and  present  a  bad  surface, 
and  will  also  dry  out,  and  perhaps  not  live  through 
a  dry  spell.  It  is  almost  impossible  to  pound 
down  sod  too  firm.  If  the  land  is  freshly  plowed, 
it  is  important  that  the  borders  which  are  sodded 
be  an  inch  or  two  lower  than  the  adjacent  land, 
because  that  land  will  settle  in  the  course  of  a 


177.     Cutting  sod. 


few  weeks.  If  it  is  necessary  to  do  sodding  in 
a  dry  time,  the  sod  may  be  covered  from  a  half 
inch  to  an  inch  deep  with  fine,  mellow  soil  as  a 
mulch,  to  prevent  it  from  drying  out.  The  grass 
will  grow  through  this  soil  without  difficulty. 
Upon  terraces  and  steep  banks,  the  sod  may  be 
held  in  place  by  driving  wooden  pegs  through  it. 

Lawns  may  be  sown  with  pieces  of  sods  rather 
than  with  seeds.  Sods  may  be  cut  up  into  bits 
an  inch  or  two  square  and  these  can  be  scattered 


SODDING    LAWNS 


209 


broadcast  over  the  area  and  rolled  into  the  land. 
While  it  is  preferable  that  these  pieces  should  lie 
right  side  up,  it  is  not  necessary  that  they  should, 
if  they  are  cut  thin,  and  if  they  are  sown  when 
the  weather  is  cool  and  moist.  Sowing  pieces  of 
sod  is  a  most  excellent  practice  in  lands  in  which 
it  is  difficult  to  secure  a  catch  from  seed. 


178.    Economical  sodding. 

An  "  economical  sodding"  is  described  in  Ameri- 
can Garden  (Fig.  178):  "To  obtain  sufficient 
sod  of  suitable  quality  for  covering  terrace  -  slopes 
or  small  blocks  that  for  any  reason  cannot  well  be 
seeded,  is  often  a  difficult  matter.  In  the  accom- 
panying illustration  we  show  how  a  surface  of  sod 
may  be  used  to  good  advantage  over  a  larger  area 
than  its  real  measurement  represents.  This  is 
done  by  laying  the  sods,  cut  in  strips  from  six  to 
ten  inches  wide,  in  lines  and  cross -lines,  and  after 
filling  the  spaces  with  good  soil,  sowing  these 
spaces  with  grass -seed.  Should  the  catch  of  seed 
for  any  reason  be  poor,  the  sod  of  the  strips  will 
tend  to  spread  over  the  spaces  between  them,  and 


210        THE  PLAN  OF  THE  PLACE 

failure  to  obtain  a  good  sward  within  a  reasonable 
time  is  almost  out  of  the  question.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  one  needs  sod  and  has  no  place  from 
which  to  cut  it  except  the  lawn,  by  taking  up 
blocks  of  sod,  leaving  strips  and  cross -strips,  and 
treating  the  surface  as  described  above,  the  bare 
places  left  are  soon  covered  with  green." 

Under  trees,  and  in  other  shady  places,  it  may 
be  necessary  to  cover  the  ground  with  something 
else  than  grass.  Good  plants  for  such  uses  are 
periwinkle  ( Vinca  minor,  an  evergreen  trailer, 
often  called  "running  myrtle"),  moneywort  (Ly- 
simachia  nummularia) ,  lily -of -the -valley,  and 
various  kinds  of  sedge  or  earex. 


SECTION  III 


PLANTING    THE    ORNAMENTAL   GROUNDS 

In  choosing  the  kinds  of  plants,  the  gardener 
should  carefully  distinguish  two  categories, — those 
to  compose  the  structural  masses  and  design  of 
the  place,  and  those  which  are  to  be  used  for  mere 
ornament.  The  chief  merits  to  be  sought  in  the 
former  are  good  foliage,  pleasing  form  and  va- 
rious habit,  shades  of  green,  and  color  of  winter 
twigs.  The  merits  of  the  latter  lie  chiefly  in 
flowers  or  colored  foliage. 

Each  of  these  categories  should  be  again  di- 
vided. Of  plants  for  the  main  design,  there 
may  be  a  list  of  trees  for  a  windbreak,  another  of 
trees  for  shade,  another  of  shrubs  for  screens  or 
heavy  plantings,  another  for  the  lighter  side  plant- 
ings, and  another  for  incidental  masses  about  the 
buildings  or  on  the  lawn,  and  perhaps  another  of 
vines  for  porches  and  arbors  and  evergreens,  and 
also  for  hedges.  The  lists  on  pages  221  to  240 
will  be  suggestive. 

Plants  used  for  mere  embellishment  or  orna- 
mentation may  be  ranged  into  categories  for 
permanent  herbaceous  borders,  for  display  beds, 
ribbon  edgings,  annuals  for  temporary  effects, 
(211) 


212      PLANTING    THE    ORNAMENTAL    GROUNDS 

foliage  beds,  plants  for  adding  color  and  emphasis 
to  the  shrubbery  masses,  and  plants  desired  to  be 
grown  as  isolated  specimens  or  as  curiosities. 

It  is  always  legitimate,  and,  in  fact,  desirable, 
to  plant  for  immediate  effect.  One  may  plant 
very  thickly  of  rapid -growing  trees  and  shrubs 
for  this  purpose.  It  is  a  fact,  however,  that  very 
rapid -growing  trees  usually  lack  strong  or  artis- 
tic character.  Other  and  better  trees  should  be 
planted  with  them,  and  the  insipid  and  rapid- 
growing  kinds  be  gradually  removed.  These  re- 
marks apply  with  particular  force  to  summer  re- 
sorts and  pleasure  grounds,  at  which  there  is  a 
great  tendency  to  secure  quick  effects  by  profuse 
planting  of  willows  and  poplars.  These  trees  al- 
ways look  cheap  and  characterless.  Maples,  elms, 
oaks,  catalpas,  or  other  trees,  should  be  planted 
with  the  willows  or  poplars,  and  eventually  only 
an  occasional  specimen  of  the  nurse -planted  wil- 
lows and  poplars  should  remain.  That  is,  in  the 
completed  picture,  willows,  poplars  and  the  like, 
should  be  only  incidents.  (See,  also,  pages  152, 
153.) 

Some  of  the  silver  or  white -leaved  poplars  pro- 
duce the  most  striking  contrasts  of  foliage,  espe- 
cially if  set  near  darker  trees,  and  for  this  reason 
they  are  much  desired  by  many  planters.  Bolle's 
poplar  (Populus  Bolleana  of  the  nurseries)  is  one 
of  the  best  of  these  trees.  Its  habit  is  something 
like  that  of  the  Lombardy.  The  upper  surface  of 


IMMEDIATE    EFFECTS  213 

the  deeply  lobed  leaves  is  dark,  dull  green,  while 
the  under  surface  is  almost  snowy  white.  Such 
emphatic  trees  as  this  should  generally  be  par- 
tially obscured  by  planting  them  amongst  other 
trees,  so  that  they  appear  to  mix  with  the  other 
foliage;  or  else  they  should  be  seen  at  some  dis- 
tance. Other  varieties  of  the  common  white  pop- 
lar or  abele  are  occasionally  useful,  although  most 
of  them  sprout  badly  and  may  become  a  nuisance. 
But  the  planting  of  these  immodest  trees  is  so 
likely  to  be  overdone  that  I  scarcely  dare  recom- 
mend them,  although,  when  skilfully  used,  they 
may  be  made  to  produce  most  excellent  effects. 
If  any  reader  has  a  particular  fondness  for  trees 
of  this  class  (or  any  others  with  woolly -white 
foliage)  and  if  he  has  only  an  ordinary  city  lot  or 
farm -yard  to  ornament,  let  him  reduce  his  desires 
to  a  single  tree,  and  then  if  that  tree  is  planted 
in  the  interior  of  a  group  of  other  trees,  no 
harm  can  result ! 

However  much  the  planter  may  plan  for  imme- 
diate effects,  the  beauty  of  trees  and  shrubs  comes 
with  maturity  and  age,  and  this  beauty  is  often 
delayed,  or  even  obliterated,  by  shearing  and  ex- 
cessive heading -back.  At  first,  bushes  are  stiff 
and  erect,  but  when  they  obtain  their  full  charac- 
ter they  droop  or  roll  over  to  meet  the  sward. 
Some  bushes  make  mounds  of  green  much  sooner 
than  others  which  may  be  even  closely  related. 
Thus  the  common  yellow- bell,  ForsytMa  viridis- 


214      PLANTING    THE    ORNAMENTAL    GROUNDS 

sima,  remains  stiff  and  hard  for  some  years, 
whereas  F.  suspensa  makes  a  rolling  heap  of  green 
in  two  or  three  years.  Quick,  informal  effects  can 
also  be  obtained  by  the  use  of  Hall's  Japanese 
honeysuckle  (Lonicera  Halliana  of  nurserymen), 
an  evergreen  in  the  South  and  holding  its  leaves 
until  midwinter  or  later  in  the  North.  It  may  be 
used  for  covering  a  rock,  a  pile  of  rubbish,  a 
stump  (Fig.  179),  to  fill  a  corner  against  a  foun- 
dation, or  it  may  be  trained  on  a  porch  or  arbor. 
There  is  a  form  with  yellow -veined  leaves.  Rosa 
Wichuraiana,  and  some  of  the  dewberries,  are  use- 
ful for  covering  rough  places. 

Many  vines,  which  are  commonly  used  for 
porches  and  arbors,  may  be  used  also  for  the  bor- 
ders of  shrub -plantations  and  for  covering  rough 
banks  and  rocks.  Such  vines,  among  others,  are 
various  kinds  of  clematis,  Virginia  creeper,  ac- 
tinidia,  akebia,  trumpet  creeper,  periploca,  bitter- 
sweet (Solatium  Dulcamara),  wax-work  (Celas- 
trus  scanclens) . 

For  hedges,  either  evergreens  or  deciduous  trees 
and  shrubs  may  be  used.  Of  common  evergreens, 
the  various  kinds  of  arborvitae,  native  hemlock, 
and  the  retinosporas,  may  be  used.  They  stand 
cutting  well.  Privet  (particularly  the  so-called 
Calif ornian),  mahonia,  box  and  Citrus  trifoliata 
are  also  either  evergreen  or  partially  so,  depending 
somewhat  upon  the  region  in  which  they  are 
grown.  Mahonia  and  box  are  true  evergreens,  and 


179i     Stump  covered  with  Japanese   honeysuckle. 


216      PLANTING    THE    ORNAMENTAL    GROUNDS 

are  also  adapted  for  low  hedges  and  edgings.  The 
citrus  is  hardy  as  far  north  as  Washington  in  pro- 
tected places,  and  in  some  cases  even  farther. 
For  hedges,  plants  should  be  set  as  close  as  two 
feet  or  less,  and  they  should  be  rigidly  headed -in 
even  from  the  first,  in  order  to  develop  a  thick  bot- 
tom growth.  For  deciduous  hedges,  osage  orange, 
buckthorn,  pyracantha,  locust,  and  various  other 
plants  may  be  used. 

Coniferous  evergreens — as  pines,  spruces,  cedars 
— may  be  planted  in  fall,  spring  or  summer.  There 
is  much  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  proper  sea- 
son, which  only  means  that  the  transplanting  may 
be  done  in  various  seasons.  The  writer  has  had 
best  success  in  transplanting  them  late  in  spring, 
when  the  new  growth  is  beginning,  especially 
when  he  can  choose  a  rainy  or  moist  time.  As  a 
rule,  evergreens  are  not  trimmed  upon  being  trans- 
planted; but  if  the  top  seems  to  be  very  large  in 
proportion  to  the  root,  the  branches  may  be 
headed -in  a  few  inches.  In  transplanting  ever- 
greens from  the  wild  into  sunny  places,  it  is  well 
to  choose  those  which  naturally  grow  in  the  sun. 
This  is  particularly  important  with  the  hemlock. 

The  verdurous  beauty  of  spruces,  hemlocks  and 
firs  may  be  much  prolonged  if  a  few  inches  of  the 
tips  of  the  strongest  branches  be  cut  off  every 
year  or  two.  This  treatment  induces  a  thick 
growth  of  the  top,  while  it  is  not  severe  enough  to 
reduce  the  tree  to  a  formal  figure.  Even  the 


PLANTING    HINTS  217 

leader  may  be  cut  if  the  tree  tends  to  grow  too 
tall  and  open,  and  a  new  leader  will  soon  take  its 
place.  Spruces  which  have  become  very  open  and 
ragged  may  be  severely  headed -back,  and  the 
interior  of  the  top  will  finally  feather  out  and  fill 
up.  Of  course,  the  lower  limbs  should  never  be 
removed  from  spruces,  for  the  beauty  of  the  tree 
lies  in  its  pyramidal  and  half -formal  figure. 

A  few  trees  and  shrubs  demand  a  special  prep- 
aration of  the  land.  This  is  true  of  the  Jhardy 
rhododendrons,  and,  to  some  extent,  of  kalmias 
and  andromedas  (pages  227,  231).  They  thrive 
best  in  a  soil  containing  much  leaf -mold.  It  is 
a  good  practice  to  remove  the  soil  to  a  depth  of 
two  feet  and  fill  the  place  with  woods  earth.  In 
the  North,  rhododendrons  should  be  partially 
screened  from  winter  and  spring  suns  by  planting 
them  near  or  among  deciduous  trees. 

In  the  planting  of  any  kind  of  trees,  it  is  well 
to  remember  that  nursery -grown  specimens  gen- 
erally transplant  more  readily  and  thrive  better 
than  trees  taken  from  the  wild;  and  this  is  par- 
ticularly true  if  the  stock  was  transplanted  in  the 
nursery.  Trees  which  transplant  with  difficulty, 
as  the  papaw  or  asimina,  and  some  nut  trees,  may 
be  prepared  for  removal  by  cutting  some  of  their 
roots, — and  especially  the  tap-root,  if  they  have 
such, — a  year  or  two  in  advance. 

In  making  borders  of  flowers,  the  most  satisfac- 
tory results  are  obtained  if  a  large  clump  of  each 


219 

kind  or  variety  is  grown. 
Some  of  the  most  effective 
borders  are  those  which 
are  filled  with  miscellan- 
eous perennial  herbs  taken 
at  odd  times  from  fields 
and  woods.  The  her- 
baceous border  is  one  of 
the  most  flexible  parts  of 
Y  7  §i  grounds,  since  it  has  no 

J  regular  or  formal  design. 
Allow  ample  space  for  each 
perennial  root, — often  as 
much  as  three  or  four 
square  feet, — and  then  if 
the  space  is  not  filled  the 
first  year  or  two,  scatter 
over  the  area  seeds  of  pop- 
pies,  sweet  peas,  asters, 
gilias,  alyssum,  or  other  an- 
nuals. Prepare  the  ground 
well  in  the  beginning,  tak- 
ing particular  care  to  make 
it  deep,  and  mulch  liberally 
every  fall.  Even  peren- 
nials usually  bloom  better 
when  not  more  than  two  or 
three  years  planted,  and 
the  grower  must  expect, 
therefore,  to  renew  or 


220      PLANTING    THE    ORNAMENTAL    GROUNDS 

change  the  clumps  from  time  to  time,  if  they  show 
signs  of  failing.  Figs.  180-182,  from  Long  (Pop- 
ular Gardening,  i.,  17,  18,  from  which  journal, 
now  discontinued  many  pictures  in  this  volume 
are  taken),  suggest  methods  of  making  such  bor- 
ders. They  are  on  a  scale  of  ten  feet  to  the  inch. 
The  entire  surface  is  tilled,  and  the  irregular  dia- 
grams designate  the  sizes  of  the  clumps.  .The 
diagrams  containing  no  names  are  to  be  filled 
with  bulbs,  annuals  and  tender  plants. 

LIST  OF  ORNAMENTAL  PLANTS    WHICH  ABE 
HARDY  IN  CENTRAL' MICHIGAN 

The  following  list  was  made  some  years  ago  for 
use  in  the  author's  classes  in  the  Agricultural  Col- 
lege of  Michigan.  It  is  now  revised,  and  is  be- 
lieved to  contain  the  greater  part  of  the  desirable 
trees  and  shrubs  which  are  hardy  in  the  northern- 
most states,  although  it  is  not  intended  to  be 
complete.  The  notes  were  originally  the  result  of 
several  years'  observation  upon  the  large  collection 
of  plants  growing  upon  the  grounds  of  the  Agri- 
cultural College,  at  Lansing.  The  winters  there 
are  severe,  the  thermometer  occasionally  register- 
ing twenty  degrees  below  zero,  and  sometimes  even 
a  lower  temperature.  In  the  following  list  the 
plants  are  arranged  somewhat  in  the  order  of 
merit,  as  they  appeal  to  the  author.  The  species 
of  each  genus  are  intended  to  be  strictly  so  ar- 
ranged. The  home-maker  will  know  which  of  the 
native  trees  of  his  region  are  valuable  for  planting 


HARDY    TREES  221 

as  single  specimens  on  the  lawn  or  roadside  for 
purposes  of  shade;  some  of  the  best  for  this  pur- 
pose in  the  following  list  are  marked  with  a  dag- 
ger (t).  Those  plants  marked  with  an  asterisk 
(*)  are  native  to  Michigan. 

I.    TREES  FOR  WINDBREAKS,  OR  SHELTER  BELTS. 

White  pine,  Pinus  Strobus.* 
Austrian  pine,  P.  Austriaca. 
Scotch  pine,  P.  sylvestris. 
Red  pine,  P.  resinosa.* 
Norway  spruce,  Picea  excelsa. 

Any  of  the  rapidly  growing,  native  forest  trees,  especially: 
American  elm,   Ulmus  Americana. *t 
Sugar  maple,  Acer  saccharinum*^  and  var.  nigrum.*^ 
Basswood,  Tilia  Americana.*^ 
Cottonwood,  Populus  monilifera.* 
Balsam  poplar,  P.  balsamifera.* 
Balm  of  Gilead,  P.  balsamifera  var.  candicans* 
Wild  black  cherry,  Primus  serotina.* 
Box -elder,  Negundo  acer aides  * 

II.    TREES  FOR  GROUPS  OR  SINGLE  SPECIMENS. 
A.  Deciduous  Trees. 

Norway  maple,  Acer  platanoides  .^ 

One  of  the  finest  trees  for  single  lawn  specimens,  especially  in  tranquil 
scenes.    It  droops  too  much  and  Is  too  low-headed  for  roadside  planting. 
Black  sugar  maple,  A.  saccharin-urn  var.  nigrum.*^ 

Darker  and  softer  in  aspect  than  the  ordinary  sugar  maple. 
Sugar  maple,  A.  saccharinum.*^ 

This  and  the  last  are  the  best  roadside  trees. 
Wier's  cut-leaved  silver  maple,  A.  dasycarpum,  hort.  var. 

Light  and  graceful.     Especially  desirable  for  pleasure  grounds. 
Silver  maple,  A.  dasycarpum.*^ 

Desirable  for    water-courses  and   for    grouping.     Succeeds   on  both 
wet  and  dry  lands. 


222      PLANTING    THE    ORNAMENTAL    GROUNDS 

Bed,  soft,  or  swamp  maple,  A.  rubrum* 

Valuable  for  its  spring  and  autumn  colors,  and  for  variety  in  grouping. 
Sycamore  maple,  A.  Pseudo  -platanus . 

A  slow  grower,  to  be  used  mostly  as  single  specimens. 
American  elm,  Ulmus  Americana .*t 

One  of  the  most  graceful  and  variable  of  trees;  useful  for  many 
purposes. 

Cork  elm,  U.  racemosa* 

Softer  in  aspect  than  the  last,  and  more  picturesque  in  winter,  having 
prominent  ridges  of  bark  on  its  branches.  Slow  grower. 

Red,  or  slippery  elm,  U.  fulva* 

Occasionally  useful  in  a  group  or  shelter-belt.  A  stiff  and  straggling 
grower. 

European  silver  linden,  Tilia  argentea  and  varieties  (T.alba}.^ 
Very  handsome.    Leaves  silvery  white  beneath.    Among  others,  is  a 
weeping  variety. 

American  linden  or  basswood,  Tilia  Americana.*^ 

Very  valuable  for  single  trees  on  large  lawns,  or  for  roadsides. 

European  linden,  T.  Europcea,  and  varieties. t 
Has  the  general  character  of  the  American  basswood. 

Tulip  tree  or  white  wood,  Liriodendron  Tulipifera*^ 

Valuable  for  the  southern  half  of  the  Lower  Peninsula.  Unique  in 
foliage  and  flower. 

Cucumber  tree,  Magnolia  acuminata.^ 

Not  reliable  north  of  Lansing.    Handsome. 
Yellow-wood,  or  Virgilia,  Cladrastis  tinctoria. 

The  finest  hardy  flowering  tree. 
Swamp  white  oak,  Quercus  bicolor.*^ 

A  very  desirable  tree,  usually  neglected.  Very  picturesque  in  winter. 
The  oaks  are  slow  growers  and  usually  transplant  with  difficulty. 
Natural  specimens  are  most  valuable.  A  large,  well-grown  oak  is  one 
of  the  grandest  of  trees. 

Bur  oak,  Q.  macrocarpa*} 

Chestnut  oak,  Q.  Prinus,*^  and  especially  the  common  var. 

acuminata  (or  Q.  Muhlenbergii] .*| 
White  oak,  Q.  alba*t 
Shingle  oak,  Q.  imbricaria  .*t 


HARDY    TREES  223 

Scarlet  oak,  Q.  coccinea.*^ 

This  and  the  next  two  are  glossy-leaved,  and  are  desirable  for  gay 
scenes. 

Black  oak,  Q.  tinctoria*^ 
Red  oak,  Q.  rubra*} 
Pepperidge  or  gum-tree,  Nyssa  multiftora .* 

One  of  the  oddest  and  most  picturesque  of  our  native  trees.  Espe- 
cially attractive  in  winter.  Foliage  brilliant  red  in  autumn.  Most 
suitable  for  low  lands. 

Horse  chestnut,  JEsculus  Hippocastanum  .~\ 

Useful  for  single  specimens  and  roadsides. 
Showy  catalpa,  Catalpa  speciosa.^ 

Very  dark,  soft-foliaged  tree  of  small  to  medium  size.  Showy  in 
flower.  To  be  used  as  single  specimens. 

Smaller  catalpa,  C.  bignonioides.1i 

Less  showy  than  the  last,  blooming  a  week  or  two  later.    Less  hardy. 
Black  ash,  Fraxinus  sambucifolia.*^ 

One  of  the  best  of  the  light  leaved  trees-    Does  well  on  dry  soils, 
although  native  to  swamps.    Not  appreciated. 
White  ash,  F.  Americana. ,*t 
Kentucky  coffee-tree,  Gymnocladiis  Canadensis.* 

Light  and  graceful.    Unique  in  winter. 
Bitter-nut,  Hicoria  minima,  or  Carya  amara* 

Much  like  black  ash  in  aspect.    Not  appreciated. 
Hickory,  Hicoria  ovata,  or  Carya  alba,    *and  others. 

Useful  in  remote  groups  or  belts. 
Cut-leaved  weeping  birch,  Betula  alba,  hort.  var. 

The  finest  of  gay  trees.    To  be  used  sparingly  as  single  specimens. 
Cut- leaved  birch,  B.  alba,  hort.  var. 
European  birch,  B.  alba. 
American  white  birch,  B.  populifolia. 
Paper,  or  Canoe  birch,  B.  papyrifera.* 
Purple  birch,  B.  alba,  hort.  var. 
Cherry  birch,  B.  lenta.* 

Well  grown  specimens  resemble  the  sweet  cherry.    Both  this  and  the 
next  make  attractive  light  leaved  trees.    They  are  not  appreciated. 
Yellow  birch,  B.  lutea* 


224      PLANTING    THE    ORNAMENTAL    GROUNDS 

Aspen,  Populus  tremuloides* 

Very  valuable  when  well  grown.    Too  much  neglected.    Most  of  the 
poplars  are  suitable  for  pleasure  grounds,  and  as  nurses  for  slower 
growing  and  more  emphatic  trees.     (Pages  152,  153,  213.) 
Large-toothed  aspen,  P.  grandidentata* 

Unique  in  summer  color.    Heavier  in  aspect  than  the  last.    Old  trees 
become  ragged. 
Weeping  poplar,  P.  grandidentata,  hort.  var.  pendula. 

An  odd,  small  tree,  suitable  for  small  places,  but,  like  all  weeping 
trees,  apt  to  be  planted  too  freely. 
Cottonwood,  P.  monilifera.* 

Desirable  in  a  group  or  near  water.    The  staminate  specimens,  only, 
should  be  planted  if  possible,  as  the  cotton  of    the  seed-pods  is  dis- 
agreeable when  carried  by  winds. 
Balm  of  Gilead,  P.  balsamifera*  and  var.  candicans.* 

Desirable  for  remote  groups  or  belts.    Foliage  not  pleasant  in  color. 
Lombardy  poplar,  P.  nigra,  var.  Italica. 

Desirable  for  certain  purposes,  but  used  too  indiscriminately.    It  is 
apt  to  be  short-lived  in  this  climate. 
Bolle's  poplar,  P.  alba,  var.  Bolleana. 

Habit  much  like  the  Lombardy.  Leaves  curiously  lobed,  very  white  be 
neath,  making  a  pleasant  contrast.   Evidently  hardy  at  Lansing.  (P.  212.) 
Locust,  Eobinia  Pseudacacia.^ 

Should  be  planted  at  some  distance  from  the  dwelling.    Useful  in 
grouping.    Attractive  in  flower.    Handsome  as  single  specimens  when 
young. 
Honey  locust,  Gleditschia  triacanthos.*1[ 

Like  the  last,  this  should  be  planted  rather  remote  from  the  residence, 
or  near  the  borders.    The  foliage  of  both  is  light. 
Beech,  Fagus  ferruginea*^ 

Specimens  which  are  symmetrically  developed  are  among  our  best 
lawn  trees.    Picturesque  in  winter. 
Chestnut,  Castanea  vesca}  and  var.  Americana*^ 
Plane  or  Buttonwood,  Platanus  occidentalis .*t 

Young  or  middle-aged  trees  areisoft  and  pleasant  in  aspect,  but  they 
soon  become  thin  and  ragged  below.    Most  desirable  in  belts.    Unique 
in  winter. 
Sassafras,  Sassafras  officinalis*^ 

Suitable  in  the  borders  of  groups  or  for  single  specimens.    Peculiar 
in  winter.    Too  much  neglected. 


HARDY    TREES  225 

Maiden-hair  tree,  Grinkgo  biloba. 

Very  odd  and  striking.    To  be  used  for  single  specimens. 
Rowan  or  European  mountain  ash,  Pyrus  Aucuparia. 

Peach -leaved  willow,  Salix  amygdaloides.* 

Very  handsome  small  tree,  deserving  more  attention.  This  and  the 
next  valuable  in  low  places  or  along  water  courses. 

Black  willow,  S.  nigra* 

Weeping  willow,  S.  Babylonica. 

To  be  planted  sparingly, 'preferably  near  water.  The  sort  known  as 
the  Wisconsin  weeping  .willow  appears  to  be  much  hardier  than  the 
common  type. 

White  willow,  S.  alba,  and  various  varieties,  one  of   which 

is  the  golden  willow. 

Maybe  used  sparingly.  Tree  willows  are  most  valuable,  as  a  rule,  when 
used  for  temporary  plantations  or  as  nurses  for  better  trees.  (P.  212.) 

Wild  black  cherry,  Prunus  serotina.* 

Nettle-tree,  Celtis  occidentalis  * 

Box -elder,  Ncyundo  aceroides* 

Very  hardy  and  rapid-growing.  Much  used  in  the  West  as  a  wind- 
break, but  not  strong  in  ornamental  features. 

European  larch,  Larix  Europcea. 

American  larch  or  tamarack,  L.  Americana  * 

Bald  cypress,  Taxoclium  disticlium. 

Not  entirely  hardy  at  Lansing.  Generally  becomes  scraggly  after 
fifteen  or  twenty  years. 

Butternut,  Juglans  cinerea.* 
Walnut,  J,  niyra.* 

Ailantlius,  Ailantlius  glandulosus. 

A  rapid  grower,  with  large  pinnate  leaves.  The  staminate  plant 
possesses  a  disagreeable  odor  when  it  flowers.  Suckers  badly.  Most 
useful  as  a  shrub.  See  the  same  under  Shrubs  (page  234;  also  Fig.  157). 

B.     Coniferous  Evergreens. 

Norway  spruce,  Picea  excelsa. 

Loses  much  of  its  peculiar  beauty  when  thirty  to  fifty  years  of  age. 
(See  page  217.) 


226      PLANTING    THE    ORNAMENTAL    GROUNDS 

White  spruce,  P.  alba.* 

One  of  the  finest  of  the  spruces.    A  more  compact  grower  than  the 
last,  and  not  so  coarse.    Grows  slowly. 
Oriental  spruce,  P.  orientalis. 

Especially  valuable  from  its  habit  of  holding  its  lowest  limbs.    Grows 
slowly. 
Blue  fir,  Colorado  blue  spruce,  P.  pungens. 

In  color  probably  the  finest  of  the  conifers.  Grows  slowly.  Varies 
in  blueness. 

Nordmann's  fir,  Abies  Nordmannlana. 
Balsam  fir,  A.  lalsamea.* 

Loses  most  of  its  beauty  in  fifteen  or  twenty  years. 
Hemlock  spruce,  Tsuga  Canadensis* 

Young  and  well-grown  specimens  are  the  most  graceful  of  our  ever- 
greens. In  the  West,  if  given  some  protection  from  the  sun  it  does  bet- 
ter. Should  therefore  be  planted  near  large  trees.  (See  page  216.) 

Arborvitse,  Thuja  occidentalis  * 

Becomes  unattractive  after  ten  or  fifteen  years,  especially  on  poor  soils. 
Cembrian  pine,  Pinus  Cembra. 

A  very  fine  slow-growing  tree.    One  of  the  few  standard  pines  suit- 
able for  small  places. 
White  pine,  P.  Strolus* 
Scotch  pine,  P.  sylvestris. 

Eed  pine,  P.  resinosa* 

Valuable  in  groups  and  belts.  Not  sufficiently  known.  Usually 
called  "Norway  pine."  Rather  heavy  in  expression. 

Scrub  pine,  P.  Bariksiana* 

A  small  tree,  more  picturesque  than  beautiful.     Desirable. 

Bed  cedar,  Juniperus  Virginiana.* 

III.    SHRUBS  AND  VERY  SMALL  TREES,   NOT  SCANDENT. 

A.  Deciduous,  or  Broad-leaved  if  Evergreen. 
Many  rapid-growing  trees  may  be  utilized  as  shrubs  by 
cutting  them  off  near  the  ground  every  year,  or  every  other 
year,  and  allowing  young  shoots  to  grow.  Basswood,  black 
ash,  some  of  the  maples,  tulip  tree,  mulberry,  and  others, 
may  be  treated  in  this  manner.  (Fig.  157.) 


183.     A  spirea,  one  of  the  most  serviceable  flowering  shrubs. 


228      PLANTING    THE    ORNAMENTAL    GROUNDS 

Wild  laurel,  Kalmia  latifolia. 

Erieaceous  evergreen.  Thekalmias  and  rhododendrons  are  among  the 
choicest  of  shrubs.  They  require  a  rather  peaty  soil  and  a  somewhat 
shaded  situation,  especially  in  winter  (page  217). 

Rhododendron,  Rhododendron  Catawbiense,  garden  varieties. 

Sty  rax,  Sty  rax  Japonica. 

One  of  the  most  graceful  of  flowering  shrubs.  It  may  not  be  hardy 
northward. 

Common  snowball,  Viburnum  Opulus.* 

The  cultivated  sort  is  a  native  of  the  Old  World,  but  the  species  grows 

wild  in  Michigan  (known  as  High-bush  Cranberry),  and  is  worthy  of 

cultivation. 
Japanese  snowball,  V.  plicatum  (properly  V.  tomentosum) . 

Common  lilac,  Syringa  vulgaris. 
Josika  lilac,  S.  Josikcea. 

Persian  lilac,  S.  Persica. 

Various  other  lilacs  are  also  hardy  and  desirable. 
Mock -orange,    Philadelphus  coronarius    and  P.  grandiftorus. 

Smoke-tree,  Ehus  Cotinus. 

One  of  the  best  shrubs  for  massing.    Two  colors  are  grown. 
Dwarf  sumac,  E.  copallina* 

Attractive  in  foliage,  and  especially  conspicuous  in  autumn  from  the 
brilliant  red  of  its  leaves. 

Sumac,  smooth  and  hairy,  E.  glabra*  and  E.  typliina.* 

Useful  for  the  borders  of  large  groups  and  belts.  They  may  be  cut 
down  every  year  and  allowed  to  sprout  (as  in  Fig.  157).  The  young  tops 
are  handsomest.  R.  glabra  is  the  finer  species  for  this  purpose. 

Three-lobed  spirea,  Spircea  trilobata. 

One  of  the  most  showy  early-flowering  shrubs.     Excellent  for  massing. 

Sorbus-leaved  spirea,  S.  sorbifolia. 

Desirable  for  its  late  blooming, — late  June  and  early  July. 

Plum -leaved  spirea,  S.  prunifolia. 
Fortune's  spirea,  S.  Japonica,  or  S.  callosa. 

Thunberg's  spirea,  S.  Thunbergii. 

Neat  and  attractive  in  habit.    Dwarf. 
St.  Peter's  Wreath,  S.  hypericifolia. 


HARDY    SHRUBS  229 

Douglas'  spirea,  S.  Douglasii. 

Blossoms  late,— in  July. 
Hard -hack,  S.  tomentosa.* 

Much  like  the  last,  but  less  showy. 
Willow -leaved  spirea,  S.  salicifolia.* 

Various  other  spireas  are  hardy  and  desirable. 
Nine-bark,  Physocarpus  opuUfolia*  (Spircea  opulifolia). 
Exochorda,  Exochorda  grandiflora. 

A  large  and  very  showy  shrub,  producing  a  profusion  of  apple-like 
white  flowers  in  early  spring. 

Various  roses. 

Hardy  roses  are  not  always  desirable  for  the  lawn.  For  general 
lawn  purposes  the  older  sorts,1  single  or  semi-double,  and  which  do  not 
require  high  culture,  are  to  be  preferred.  (See  pages  148,  149.) 

Japanese  rose,  Rosa  rugosa. 

Most  excellent  for  lawn  planting,  as  the  foliage  is  thick  and  not 
attacked  by  insects  (Fig.  184). 

Wild  swamp  rose,  Rosa  Carolina* 

Wild  dwarf  rose,  Rosahumilis*  (R.  lucida  of  Michigan). 

Say's  Rose,  Rosa  Sayi* 

Excellent  for  lawns. 
Weigela,  Diervilla  Japonica  and  other  species. 

Free  bloomers,  very  fine,  in  many  colors. 
Dwarf  buckeye,  jEsculus  parviflora. 

Attractive  in  habit,  foliage  and  flower.    Produces  a  large  mass. 

Flowering  almond,  Prunus  Japonica. 
Daphne,  Daphne  Mezereum. 

Produces  rose-purple  or  white  flowers  in  abundance  before  the  leaves 
appear.    Our  earliest  shrub  in  flowering.    Dwarf,  and  should  be  planted 
on  the  edges  of  groups. 
Forsythia,  Forsythia  viridissima. 

Blossoms  yellow,  appearing  before  the  leaves.    Requires  protection  in 
many  places. 
Drooping  forsythia,  F.  suspensa. 

Makes  an  attractive  mass  on  a  bank  or  border.     (Page  213.) 
White  alder,   Clethra  alnifolia. 

A  very  fine,  hardy  shrub,  producing  very  fragrant  flowers  in  July  and 
August.  Should  be  better  known. 


230      PLANTING    THE    ORNAMENTAL    GROUNDS 

\< 


184.  Rosa  rugosa,  from 
Japan.  One  of  the 
best  roses  for  lawn 
planting,  because  of 
its  neat  habit  and  at- 
tractive foliage. 


Sand  myrtle,  Lciopliyllum  'buxifoliiim . 

Hydrangea,  Hydrangea  panlculata,  hort.  var.  grandiflora. 

One  of  the  best  and  most  showy  small  flowering  shrubs. 
Downy  hydrangea,  H.  radiata. 

Attractive  in  both  foliage  and  flower. 
Oak-leaved  hydrangea,  H.  quercifolia. 

This  is  especially  valuable  for  its  luxuriant  foliage.    Even  if  killed  to 
the  ground  in  winter,  it  is  still  worth  cultivating  for  its  strong  shoots. 

Ceanothus,  Ceanothus  Americanus.* 

A  very  small  native  shrub,  desirable  for  dry  places  under  trees. 
Azalea,  Azalea  viscosa  and  A.  nudiflora. 


HARDY    SHRUBS  231 

Andromeda,  Andromeda  floribunda. 

A  small  ericaceous  evergreen.  Should  have  some  protection  from  the 
winter  sun.  It  may,  for  this  purpose,  be  planted  on  the  north  side  of 
a  clump  of  trees  (Page  217. 

Wild  thorns,  Cratcegus  punctata*  C.  coctinea*  C.  crus-galli* 

and  others. 
Bailey's  osier,  Cornus  Baileyi.* 

The  finest  of  the  native  osiers  for  color  of  twigs  and  foliage. 

Red-twigged  osier,  Cornus  stolonifera* 

The  red  twigs  are  very  showy  in  winter.  Some  bushes  are  brighter 
in  color  than  others. 

Flowering  dogwood,  C.  florida* 

Coarse  but  very  showy  tree,  desirable  for  borders  of  groups  and 
belts.  A  red-flowered  variety  is  on  the  market. 

Rose  acacia,  Robinia  hispida. 

Purple  plum,  Prunus  cerasifera,  hort.  var.  Pissardi. 
One  of  our  most  reliable  purple-leaved  trees. 

Sand  cherry,  P.  pumila*  and  P.  Besseyi. 

June -berry,  Amelancliier  Canadensis*  and  others. 

Flowers  profusely  in  spring  before  the  leaves  appear. 
Fringe  tree,  Chionanthus  Virginica. 

Tartarian  maple,  Acer  Tataricum. 

Attractive  as  a  lawn  specimen  when  grown  as  a  shrub.  The  autumn 
color  is  very  bright. 

Mountain  maple,  A.  spicatum* 

Very  bright  in  autumn. 
European  maple,  A.  campestre. 

Not  generally  hardy,  but  attractive  if  cut  down  and  allowed  to  throw 
up  new  shoots. 

Tartarian  honeysuckle,  Lonicera  Tatarica. 
One  of  the  most  chaste  and  comely  of  shrubs. 

St.  John's  Wort,  Hypericum  Kalmianum,*  and  H.prolificum.* 
Small  undershrubs,  producing  bright  yellow  flowers  in  profusion  in 
July  and  August. 

Burning-bush,  Euonymus  atropurpureus .* 
Very  attractive  in  fruit. 


232      PLANTING    THE    ORNAMENTAL    GROUNDS 

Flowering,  or  fragrant  currant,  Ribes  aureum. 

Well  known  and  popular. 
Snow-berry,  Symplioricarpus  racemosus .* 

Cultivated  for  its  snow-white  berries. 
Indian  currant,  Symplioricarpus  vulgaris.* 

Foliage  delicate.    Berries  red.    Valuable. 

Witch  hazel,  Hamamelis  Firginiana.* 

Blossoms  in  October  and  November.  Unique  and  desirable  if  well 
grown. 

Elders,  Sambucus  racemosa*  (S.  pubens)  and  S.  Canadensis .* 

The  former,  the  common  "red  elder,"  is  ornamental  both  in  flower 
and  fruit.  S.  Canadensis  is  desirable  for  its  profusion  of  fragrant 
flowers  appearing  in  July. 

Kerria,  Kerria  Japonica. 

A. bramble-like  shrub,  producing  attractive  yellow  single  or  double 
flowers  from  July  until  September.  There  is  a  variegated-leaved  form. 
Good  for  banks  and  borders.  Twigs  very  green  in  winter. 

Japanese  bramble,  Rubus  cratcegifolius. 

Very  valuable  for  holding  banks.  Spreads  rapidly.  Very  red  in 
winter. 

Winter-berry,  Ilex  verticillata.* 

Produces  showy  red  berries,  which  persist  through  the  winter. 
Should  be  massed  in  rather  low  ground.  Flowers  imperfect. 

Leatherwood,  Dirca  palustris.* 

If  well  grown,  the  leatherwood  makes  a  very  neat  plant.  Blossoms 
appear  before  the  leaves,  but  not  showy. 

Button-bush,  Cephalanthus  occidentalis  .* 

Blossoms  in  July  and  August.  Desirable  for  water  courses  and  other 
low  places. 

Privet,  Ligustrum  vulgare,  and  L.  ovalifolium  (L.Japonicum). 

Much  used  for  low  hedges  and  borders. 
Barberry,  Berberis  vulgaris. 

Mahonia,  Berberis  Aquifolium. 

Evergreen.    Dwarf.    Needs  some  protection  in  exposed  places. 

Wild  crab,  P.  coronaria*  and  P.  loensis, 

Very  showy  while  in  flower,  blooming  after  apple  blossoms  have 
fallen.  Old  specimens  become  picturesque  in  form. 


HARDY    BUSHES  233 

Japanese  quince,  Pyrus  Japonica. 

An  old  favorite.    Not  hardy  at  Lansing. 
Chinquapin  or  dwarf  chestnut,  Castanea  pumila. 
Sweet  viburnum  or  sheep-berry,  Viburnum  Lentago.* 
Arrow-wood,  V.  dentatum* 

Withe-rod,  lilac  viburnum,  V.  cassi noides.* 

Other  native  and  exotic  viburnums  are  desirable. 
Spice -bush,  Lindera  Benzoin.* 

Box,  Buxus  sempervirens . 

A  diminutive  evergreen  shrub,  useful  for  edgings  in  cities. 
Kilmarnock  willow,  Salix  Caprcea,  hort.  var.  pendula. 

A  very  small  weeping  plant,  usually  more  curious  than  ornamental. 
Rosemary  willow,  S.  rosmarinifolia  of  nurserymen. 

Shining  willow,  S.  lucida* 

Very  desirable  for  the  edges  of  water, 
Long -leaved  willow,  S.  longifolia.* 

Our  narrowest-leaved  native  willow.     Useful    for    banks.     Apt    to 
spread  too  rapidly. 
Fountain  willow,  S.  purpurea. 

Pussy  willow,  S.  discolor.* 

Attractive  when  massed  at  some  distance  from  the  residence. 
Siberian  pea-tree,  Caragana  arborescens. 
Small  pea-tree,  C.  pygmcea. 

Red -bud  or  Judas-tree,  Cercis  Canadensis.* 

Produces  a  profusion  of  rose-purple  pea-like  flowers  before  the  leaves 
appear.    Foliage  attractive. 
Mountain  ash,  Pyrus  Aucuparia.     (Page  225.) 

Service-tree,  P.  domestica. 

Fruit  handsomer  than  that  of  the  mountain  ash  and  more  persistent. 
Small  tree. 

Oak-leaved  mountain  ash,  P.  hybrida. 
Small  tree,  deserving  to  be  better  known. 
Weeping  aspen,  Populus   grandidentata,  hort.  var.  pendula. 

(Page  224.) 
Cut-leaved  alder,  Alnus  glutinosa,  hort.  var. 


•  234      PLANTING    THE    ORNAMENTAL    GROUNDS 

Wild  alder,  A.  serrulata* 

Dwarf  birch,  Betula  pumila.* 

Desirable  for  low  places. 
Ailanthus,  Ailanthus  glandulosus. 

Most  attractive  when  cut  to  the  ground  each  year  and  allowed  to 
sprout  (Fig.  157).  The  young  shoots  give  a  tropical  effect.  For  this  pur- 
pose the  soil  should  be  very  rich. 

Paulo wnia,  Paulownia  imperialis. 

Of  this  and  the  following  magnolias,  the  tops  are  not  hardy,  and  they 
should  be  used  in  the  same  manner  as  the  ailanthus. 

Magnolias,  Magnolia  Umbrella  and  cordata. 

Hop -tree,  Ptelea  trifoliata* 

Prickly  ash,  Zantlioxylum  Americanum.* 

Bladder-nut,  StapJiylea  trifolia.* 

Horn-beam  or  Blue  beech,  Carpinus  Americana.* 

Iron -wood,  Os  try  a  Virginica* 

European  Bird  Cherry,  Prunus  Padus. 

A  small  tree  much  like  the  choke  cherry,  but  a  freer  grower,  with 
larger  flowers  and  racemes  which  appear  about  a  week  later. 

Choke  Cherry,  P.  Virginiana* 

Very  showy  while  in  flower. 
Ksempfer's  Catalpa,  Catalpa  Kcempferi. 
Flowering  crab,  Pyrus  floribunda. 

Pretty  both  in  flower  and  fruit.  A  large  shrub  or  small  tree.  Various 
forms. 

B.     Coniferous  Evergreens. 

Dwarf  arborvitse,  Thuja  occidentalis,  hort.  var. 

There  are  many  dwarf  and  compact  varieties  of  arborvitae,  most  of 
which  are  excellent  for  small  places.  The  most  desirable  for  general 
purposes,  and  also  the  largest,  is  the  so  called  Siberian.  Other  very 
desirable  forms  are  those  sold  as  globosa,  ericoides,  Hoveyi  and  pyra- 
midalis. 

Japanese  arborvitse   or   retinospora,    Eetinospora  of   various 
species. 

Very  attractive  small  plants,  of  which  the  following  nursery  forms 
appear  to  be  hardy  in  Central  Michigan  :  R.  squarrosa,  R.  pisifera, 
R.  plumosa,  R.  obtusa.  There  are  various  varieties  of  these. 


185.     Clematis   Henryi.     One-third  natural   size. 


236       PLANTING    THE    ORNAMENTAL    GROUNDS 

Juniper,  Juniper  us  communis,*  and  garden  varieties. 

The  juniper  is  a  partially  trailing  plant,  of  loose  habit,  suitable  for 
banks  and  rocky  places.    There  are  upright  and  very  formal  varieties 
of  it,  the  best  being  those  sold  as  var.  Hibernica,  "Irish  juniper,"  and 
var.  Suecica,  "Swedish  juniper." 
Northern  juniper,  J.  Sabina,  var.  procumbens .* 

One  of  the  best  of  the  low,  diffuse  conifers. 
Dwarf  Norway  Spruce,  Picea  excelsa,  hort.  var. 

Several  very  dwarf  sorts  of  the   Norway  spruce  are  in  cultivation, 
some  of  which  are  to   be  recommended, 
Dwarf  pine,  Pinus  pumilio. 

There  are  other  desirable  dwarf  pines. 

IV.  PERENNIAL  CLIMBERS. 

A.  Shrubby. 
1.  TENDRIL  CLIMBERS,  BOOT  CLIMBERS  AND  SCRAMBLERS. 

Virginia  creeper,  Ampclopsis  quinquefolia* 

The  best  vine  for  covering  buildings  in  the  climate  of  Michigan. 
Plants  should  be  selected  from  vines  of  known  habit,  as  some  indi- 
viduals cling  much  better  than  others. 

Japanese  ivy,  Boston  ivy,  A.   tricuspidata  (A.  Veitchii). 

Handsomer  than  the  Virginia  creeper,  and  clings  closer,  but  is  often 
injured  by  winter  in  exposed  places,  especially  when  young. 
Garden  clematis,  Clematis  of  various  species. 

Plants  of  robust  and  attractive  habit,  and  gorgeous  bloomers.     C. 
Jackmanni,  and  its  varieties,  is  one  of  the  best.     (7.  Henryi  (Fig.  185) 
is  excellent  for  white  flowers.    Clematises  bloom  in  July  and  August. 
Wild  clematis,  C.  Virginiana* 

Very  attractive  for  arbors  and  for  covering  rude  objects.    The  pistil- 
late plants  bear  curious  woolly  .balls  of  fruit. 
Wild  Clematis,   C.  verticillaris. 

Less  vigorous  grower  than  the  last,  but  excellent. 
Trumpet  creeper,  Tecoma  radicans. 

One  of  the  best  of  all  free-flowering  shrubs.  Climbs  by  means  of 
roots. 

Frost  grape,  Vltis  cordifolla. 

One  "of  the  finest  of  all  vines.  It  is  a  very  tall  grower,  producing 
thick,  heavy,  dark  leaves.  Its  foliage  often  reminds  one  of  that  of 'the 
moon-seed.  Does  not  grow  readily  from  cuttings. 


HARDY    VINES  237 

Summer  and  River  bank  grapes,  V.  bicolor,*  and  V.  vulpina* 

(riparia). 
The  common  wild  grapes. 

Ivy,  Hedera  Helix. 

The  European  ivy  does  not  endure  the  bright  sun  of  our  winter.  On 
the  north  side  of  a  building  it  often  does  well.  The  best  of  vines  for 
covering  buildings  where  it  succeeds.  Hardy  in  middle  states 

Greenbrier,  Smilax  rotundifolia*  and  S.  hispida.* 

Unique  for  the  covering  of  small  arbors  and  summer  houses. 

2.  TWINERS. 

Actinidia,  A.  polygama. 

Very  strong  grower,  with  beautiful  thick  foliage  which  is  not  attacked 
by  insects  or  fungi ;  curious  flowers  and  edible  fruit.    The  best  vine  for 
arbors.    Japanese. 
Akebia,  A.  Japonica. 

Very  handsome  and  odd  Japanese  vine ;  a  strong  grower,  and  worthy 
general  planting. 

Honeysuckles,  Woodbine,    Lonicera  sempervirens,    L.  flava, 

and  others. 

Everywhere  known  and  appreciated. 
Dutchman's  pipe,  Aristolocliia  Sipho. 

A  robust  grower,  possessing  enormous  leaves,  Useful  for  covering 
verandas  and  arbors.  Needs  to  be  more  thoroughly  tested  in  Michigan 
regarding  its  hardiness. 

Wax-work  or  Bitter-sweet,   Celastrus  scandens.* 

Very  ornamental  in  fruit.    Flowers  imperfect. 
Wistaria,  Wistaria  Sinensis  and   W.  frutescens. 

The  wistarias  evidently  do  not  thrive  in  exposed  places  in  Michigan 
The  Chinese  species,  Sinensis,  is  a  superb  plant. 

Moonseed,  Menispermum  Canadense.* 

A  small  but  very  attractive  twiner,  useful  for  thickets  and  small 
arbors. 

B.  Herbaceous. 

Hop,  Humulus  Lupulus*  and  H.  Japonicus. 

Should  be  in  common  use  as  ornamental  plants. 
Chinese  yam,  Dioscorea  Batatas  (D.  Japonica). 

Climbs  high,  but  does  not  produce  foliage  enough  to  cover  unsightly 
objects. 


238      PLANTING    THE    ORNAMENTAL    GROUNDS 

Wild  yam,  D.  villosa.* 

Smaller  than  the  preceding;  otherwise  fully  as  good. 
Ground-nut,  Apios  tulerosa* 

A  bean-like  vine,  producing  many  chocolate-brown  flowers  in  August 
and  September. 

Scarlet  Runner  and  White  Dutch  Runner  beans,  Phaseolus 
multiflorus. 

Perennial  in  the  South.    Excellent. 
Moonflowers,  Ipomcea,  various  species. 

Some  are  perennials  far  south. 

V.  HERBACEOUS  PERENNIALS  FOR  LAWNS. 

This  list  includes  only  a  few  striking  plants,  which  are 
valuable  for  lawn  planting,  selected  chiefly  on  account  of 
their  size,  foliage  and  habit.  They  are  usually  not  suitable 
for  flower  gardens.  Many  common  wild  plants  when  trans- 
planted to  grounds  and  well  grown,  produce  a  good  effect. 
It  is  impossible  to  give  to  this  list  any  degree  of  com- 
pleteness. 

Yucca,  Yucca  filamentosa. 
Funkia,  Funkia,  of  several  species. 
Peltate  saxifrage,  Saxifraga  peltata. 
Rose  Mallow,  Hibiscus  Moscheutos .* 
Elecampane,  Inula  Helenium  (Fig.  186). 

Wild  sunflowers,   Hellanihus  of   various  species,    especially 
H.  orygalis,  H.  giganteus,*  H.  grosse-serratus,  H,  stru- 
mosus.* 
Compass -pla-nts,    SilpMum   of     various    species,    especially 

S.  terebinthinaceum,*  S.  laciniatum,*  S.  perfoliatum.* 
Sacaline,  Polygonum  Saghalinense. 

Strong  and  excellent. 
Bocconia,  Bocconia  cordata. 

Wild  wormwood,  Artemisia  Stelleriana  and  others. 
Butterfly-weed,  Asclepias  tuberosa.* 

Wild  asters,  Aster  of  various   species,  especially  A.  Novce- 
Anglice*  A.  Icevis*  A.  multiflorus*  A.  spectabilis. 


186.     Elecampane.     Naturalized    in  old    fields  and    along 
roadsides. 


240      PLANTING    THE    ORNAMENTAL    GROUNDS 

Golden-rods,  Solidago  of  various  species,  especially  S.  spe- 

ciosa,*  S.  nemoralls*  S.  juncea*  S.  gigantea* 
Loose -strife,  Lythrum  Salicaria. 
Flags,  Iris  of  very  many  species. 

Japanese  wind-flower,  Anemone  Japonica.     Blooms  in  fall. 
Goat's  beard,  Spircea  Aruncus. 
Baptisia,  Baptisia  tinctoria.* 
Thermopsis,  Thermopsis  mollis. 
Wild  senna,  Cassia  Marilandica* 
Wild  trefoil,  Desmodium  Canadense*  and  others. 
Ribbon  grass,  Phalans  arundinacea  hort.  var.  picta. 
Zebra  grass,  Eulalia,  or  (Miscantlms]  species. 
Wild  panic  grass,  Panicum  virgatum* 
Arundo,  Arundo  Donax. 

One  of  the  most  striking  of  reed-grasses. 
Reed,  Phragmites  communis.* 

This  and  the  remaining  plants  of   the  list  should  be  planted  in  the 
edges  of  water. 

Wild  rice,  Zizania  aquatica.* 
Cat-tail,  Typlia  angustifolia  and  T.  latifolla.* 
Lizard's -tail,  Saururus  cernuus* 
Peltandra,  Peltandra  undulata* 
Orontium,  Orontium  agiiaticum. 


187,     Breath   of   apring! 


FLOWER-BEDS  241 

PLANTS    FOR    FLORAL    EFFECTS* 

(ERNEST   WALKER) 
1.     Remarks    on    Floicer-beds 

THE  VARIOUS  STYLES  OF  PLANTING. — The  mixed  border, 
planted  with  various  hardy  plants,  and  extending  along 
either  side  of  the  garden-walk,  was  popular  years  ago; 
and,  with  modifications  in  position,  form  and  extent,  has, 
during  the  past  few  years,  been  a  popular  attachment  to 
home  grounds.  (See  Hardy  Herbaceous  Plants,  page  278.) 
To  produce  the  best  effects,  the  plants  should  be  planted 
close  enough  to  cover  the  ground;  and  the  selection 
should  be  such  as  to  afford  a  continuity  of  bloom. 

There  is  also  the  border  of  tender  summer-blooming 
plants,  in  which  the  kinds  are  planted  in  a  mixed  fashion. 

In  ribbon-bedding,  so-called,  flowering  or  foliage  plants 
are  arranged  in  ribbon-like  lines  of  harmoniously  con- 
trasting colors,  commonly  accompanying  walks  or  drives, 
but  also  suitable  for  marking  limits,  or  for  the  side 
borders.  In  such  beds,  as  well  as  the  others,  the  tallest 
plants,  if  the  bed  is  to  be  seen  from  one  side  only,  will 
be  placed  at  the  back,  and  the  lowest  at  the  front.  If 
it  is  to  be  seen  from  both  sides,  then  the  tallest  will 
stand  in  the  center. 

A  modification  of  the  ribbon-line,  bringing  the  con- 
trasting colors  together  into  masses  forming  circles  or 
other  patterns,  is  known  as  "massing,"  or  "massing  in 
color,"  and  sometimes  is  spoken  of  as  carpet-bedding. 

Carpet-bedding,  however,  belongs  more  properly  to  a 
style  of  bedding  in  which  plants  of  dense,  low,  spreading 

*  Since  new  and  good  varieties  of  flowering  plants  are  constantly 
being  offered,  and  fashions  are  changing,  it  is  generally  impracticable 
to  give  lists  of  named  varieties  in  a  book.  These  varieties  should  be 
chosen  after  consulting  the  annual  or  periodical  publications,  as  seeds- 
men's and  plantsmeu's  catalogues,  journals,  and  bulletins.— L,  H.  B, 


242      PLANTING    THE    ORNAMENTAL    GROUNDS 

habit  — chiefly  foliage  plants,  with  leaves  of  different 
forms  and  colors — are  planted  in  patterns  not  unlike 
carpets  or  rugs. 

Beds  composed  of  the  large  foliage  plants,  for  pro- 
ducing tropical  effects,  are  composed,  in  the  main,  of 
plants  which  are  allowed  to  develop  naturally.  In  the 
lower  and  more  orderly  massing,  the  plants  are  arranged 
not  only  in  circles  and  patterns  according  to  habit  and 
height,  but  the  selection  is  such  that  some  or  all  may 
be  kept  within  proper  limits  by  pinching  or  trimming. 
Circles  or  masses  composed  of  flowering  plants  usually 
cannot  be  cut  back  at  the  top,  so  that  the  habit  of  the 
plants  must  be  known  before  planting;  and  they  must 
be  placed  in  parts  of  the  bed  where  trimming  will  not  be 
necessary.  They  may,  however,  be  clipped  at  the  sides 
in  case  the  branches  or  foliage  of  one  mass  or  line  in 
the  pattern  grows  beyond  its  proper  bounds. 

Aquatics  may  often  be  used  to  good  effect  in  the 
landscape.  This  is  especially  true  of  such  large  and  bold 
kinds  as  the  lotus,  which  makes  a  very  strong  contrast 
against  a  building  or  a  background  of  foliage.  Ponds 
are  usually  protected  at  the  edges  by  mason-work,  and 
in  loose  soils  they  have  cement  bottoms.  In  some  soils, 
a  simple  excavation  will  hold  water,  but  it  is  usually 
necessary  to  give  the  tank  some  kind  of  lining.  Clay  is 
often  used.  The  bottom  and  sides  of  the  tank  are 
pounded  firm,  and  then  covered  with  three  to  six  inches 
of  clay,  which  has  been  kneaded  in  the  hands,  or  pounded 
and  worked  in  a  box.  Handfuls  or  shovelfuls  of  the 
material  are  thrown  forcibly  upon  the  earth,  the  operator 
being  careful  not  to  walk  upon  the  work.  The  clay  is 
smoothed  by  means  of  a  spade  or  maul,  and  it  is  then 
sanded.  These  lily  tanks  are  from  two  to  three  feet 
deep. 

Aquatics  in  the  open  nearly  always  show  to  best  ad- 
vantage if  a  few  tall  bog  plants  are  grown  with  them. 


AQUATICS 


243 


Swamps  yield  many  -interesting  tall  plants,  and  there  are 
many  exotics  in  the  market  which  can  be  grown  with 
water  lilies.  The  common  wild  water  lilies  can  be  grown 


.    A  tub  of  water  lilies. 


in  tubs  (Fig.  189),  strong  flowering  roots  being  got  each 
year  or  two  from  the  wild.  The  subject  of  aquatics  is 
too  special  for  this  book,  and  the  reader  who  wishes  the 
best  information  should  consult  Tricker's  "Water  Gar- 
den." 

2 .     Carpet-  bedding 

The  beauty  of  the  carpet-bed  lies  largely  in  its  unity  ? 
sharp  contrast  and  harmony  of  color,  elegance — often  sim- 
plicity— of  design,  nicety  of  execution,  and  the  continued 
distinctness  of  outline  due  to  scrupulous  care.  A  gen- 
erous allowance  of  greensward  on  all  sides  contributes 
greatly  to  the  general  effect,— in  fact  is  indispensable. 


244      PLANTING    THE    ORNAMENTAL    GROUNDS 

Let  us  pass  to  considerations  purely  practical:  What- 
ever place  is  selected  for  the  bed,  it  should  be  in  a  sunny 
situation.  This,  nor  any  kind  of  bed,  should  not  be 
planted  near  large  trees,  as  their  greedy  roots  will  rob  the 
soil  not  only  of  its  food,  but  of  moisture.  The  shade, 
also  [will  be  a  menace.  As  the  plants  stand  so  thick, 
the  soil  should  be  well  enriched,  and  spaded  at  least  a 
foot  deep.  In  planting,  a  space  of  at  least  six  inches 
must  be  left  between  the  outer  row  of  plants  and  the 
edge  of  the  grass.  The  very  style  of  the  bed  requires 
that  lines  be  straight,  the  curves  uniform,  and  that  they 
be  kept  so  by  the  frequent  and  careful  use  of  the  shears. 
During  dry  periods  watering  will  be  necessary.  The  beds, 
however,  should  not  be  watered  in  the  hot  sunshine. 
Foliage  plants  are  most  in  use,  and  are  the  ones  which 
will  prove  the  most  satisfactory  in  the  hands  of  the 
inexperienced,  as  they  submit  to  severe  clipping  and  are 
thus  more  easily  managed. 

The  following  list  will  be  found  helpful  to  the  beginner. 
It  embraces  a  number  of  the  plants  in  common  use  for 
carpet-bedding.  Other  useful  kinds  will  be  found  under 
the  discussion  of  annuals  (page  255).  The  usual  heights 
are  given  in  inches.  This,  of  course,  in  different  soils 
and  under  different  treatment  is,  more  or  less,  a  variable 
quantity.  The  figures  in  parentheses  suggest  in  inches 
suitable  distances  for  planting  in  the  row  when  immediate 
effects  are  expected.  A  verbena  in  rich  soil  will  in  time 
cover  a  circle  three  feet  or  more  in  diameter;  other 
plants  mentioned  spread  considerably;  but  when  used  in 
the  carpet-bed  they  must  be  planted  close.  One  can 
not  wait  for  them  to  grow.  The  aim  is  to  cover  the 
ground  at  once.  Although  planted  thick  in  the  row, 
it  will  be  desirable  to  leave  more  room  between  the  rows 
in  case  of  spreading  plants  like  the  verbena.  Most  of 
them,  however,  need  little  if  any  more  space  between 
the  rows  than  is  indicated  by  the  figures  given.  In  the 


CARPET -BEDDING  245 

list    those    plants   which   bear    free    clipping    are    marked 
with  an  asterisk  (*) : 


PLANTS  FOR  CARPET -BEDS 

The  figure   immediately  following  the  name  of  plant  indicates  its 
height;  the  figures  in  parentheses  the  distance  for  planting,  in  inches. 

1.    LOW-GROWING  PLANTS 

A.  FOLIAGE  PLANTS. 

Crimson.—  *Alternanthera   anicena   spectabilis,  6  (4-6). 

"  paronychioides   major,  5    (3-G). 

"  versicolor,  5  (3-6). 

Yellow.—  "  aurea  nana,  6  (4-6). 

Grey,   or  Whitish.— Echeveria  secunda,  glauca,  1%   (3-4). 

"  metallica,  9  (6-8). 

Cineraria  maritima  15  (9-12). 
Sempervivum  Calif ornicum  1%  (3-4). 
Thymus  argentea  6  (4-6). 

Bronze  Brown.  —  Oxalis  tropoeoloides,  3  (3-4). 
Variegated  (White  and  green).— 

Geranium  Mme.   Solleroi,  6  (6-8). 
*  Sweet   alyssum,  variegated,  6  (6-9). 

B.  FLOWERING  PLANTS. 

Scarlet.  —  Phlox  Dmmmondii,  Dwarf,  6  (4-6). 

Cuphea  platycentra,  Cigar  Plant,  6  (4-6). 
White. -Sweet  alyssum,  Little  Gem,  4  (4-6). 

"  "        common,  6  (6-8). 

Phlox  Drummondii,  Dwarf,  6  (4-6). 
Blue.—  Lobelia,  Crystal  Palace,  6  (4-6). 
Ageratum,  Dwarf  Blue,  6  (6-8). 

2.    PLANTS  OF  TALLER  GROWTH 

A.   FOLIAGE  PLANTS. 

Crimson. -*Coleus  Verschaffeltii,  24  (9-12). 
*Achyranthes  Lindeni,  18  (8-12). 

*  "  Gilsoni,  12  (8-12). 

*  "  Verschaffeltii,  12  (8-12). 
*Acalypha  tricolor,  12-18  (12). 


246      PLANTING    THE    ORNAMENTAL    GROUNDS 

Yellow. -*Colena,  Golden,  24  (9-12). 

*Achyranthes,  aurea  reticulata,  12  (8-12). 
Golden     feverfew    (Pyrethruni     parthenifolium 

aureum),  (6-8). 
Bronze  geranium,  12  (9). 
Silvery   White.— 

Dusty  Miller  (Centaurea  gymnocarpa),  12  (8-12). 
*Santolina  chamaecyparissus  incana,  6-12  (6-8). 

Geranium,  Mountain  of  Snow,  12  (6-9). 
Variegated  (white  and  green).— 

*Stevia  serrata  var.,  12-18  (8-12). 
Phalaris  arundinacea  var.  (grass),  24  (4-8). 
Cyperus   alternifolius  var.  24-30  (8-12). 
Bronze.— *Acalypha  inarginata,  24  (12). 

B.   FLOWERING  PLANTS. 

Scarlet.  —  Salvia  splendens  36  (12-18). 
Geraniums,  24  (12). 
Cuphea  tricolor  (C.  Llavffi),  18  (8-12). 
Dwarf  nasturtium  (Tropseohim)  12-18  (12-18), 
Begonia,  Vernon,  12  (6-8). 
Verbenas,  12  (6-12). 
Phlox  Drummondii,  dwarf,  6  (4-6). 
White.  —  Salvia  splendens,  White-flowered,  36  (12-18) 
Geraniums,  18-24  (12). 
Lantana,  Innocence,  18-24  (8-12). 

Queen  Victoria,  24  (8-12). 
Verbena,  Snow  Queen,  12  (6-12). 
Ageratum,  white,  9  (6-9). 
Phlox  Drummondii,  dwarf,  6  (4-6). 
Pink.  —  Petunia,  Countess  of  Ellesmere,  18  (8-12), 
Lantana,  24  (8-12). 
Verbena,  Beauty  of  Oxford,  6  (8-12). 
Phlox  Drummondii,  dwarf,  6  (4-6). 
Yellow.  —  Dwarf  nasturtium,  12  (12-18). 

Anthemis  coronaria  fl.  pi.,  12  (6-8). 
Blue.—  Ageratum  Mexicanum,  12  (6-8). 
Verbenas,  6  (6-12). 
Heliotrope,  Queen  of  Violets,  18  (12-18), 


190.    Designs  for  carpet-beds. 


248      PLANTING    THE    ORNAMENTAL    GROUNDS 

In  Fig.  190  are  shown  a  few  designs  suitable  for  carpet 
beds.  They  are  intended  merely  to  be  suggestive,  not  to 
be  copied  precisely.  The  simple  forms  and  component 
parts  of  the  more  elaborate  beds  may  be  arranged  into 
other  designs.  Likewise  the  arrangement  of  plants  which 
will  be  mentioned  as  suitable  for  making  a  given  pat- 
tern, is  only  one  of  many  possible  arrangements.  The 
idea  is  merely  to  bring  out  the  design  distinctly.  To 
accomplish  this  it  is  only  necessary  to  use  plants  of  con- 
trasting color  or  growth.  To  illustrate  how  varied  are 
the  arrangements  that  may  be  used,  and  how  easily  dif- 
ferent effects  are  produced  with  a  single  design,  I  will 
mention  several  different  combinations  of  color  for  the 
bed  No  1. 

No.  1.— Arrangement  A:  Outside,  Alternanthera  amcena  spec- 
tabilis ;  inside,  Stevia  serrata  variegata.  B :  lobelia,  Crystal 
Palace ;.Mme.  Solleroi  geranium.  C:  lobelia,  Crystal  Palace; 
scarlet  dwarf  phlox.  D:  sweet  alyssum;  petunia,  Countess 
of  Ellesmere.  E:  coleus,  Golden  Bedder;  coleus  Verchaf- 
feltii.  F:  Achyranthes  Lindeni;  yellow  dwarf  nasturtium. 

No.  2.  — Outside,  red  alternanthera ;  middle,  Dusty  Miller; 
center,  pink  geranium. 

No.  3.  — Outside,  Alternanthera  aurea  nana  ;  middle,  Alter- 
nanthera amoana  spectabilis;  center,  Anthemis  coronaria. 

No.  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  12  may  each  be  filled  with  a  single  color, 
or  given  a  border  of  suitable  plants  if  the  planter  so  chooses. 

No.  9.  — Ground,  Alternanthera  aurea  nana;  center,  Acalypha 
tricolor;  black  dots,  scarlet  geranium. 

No.  10.  — Ground  of  Centaurea  gymnocarpa;  circle,  Achyranthes 
Lindeni;  cross,  golden  coleus. 

No.  11.  — Border,    Oxalis   tropaeoloides ;    center,   blue    heliotrope, 

blue   ageratum,    or  Acalypha    marginata;     cross     about    the 

center,  Thymus   argentea,  or   centaurea;    scallop  outside   the 

cross,  blue  lobelia;    corners  inside  border,  santolina. 

Designs  13  and    14   are,  in  character,   somewhat  in  the   style 

of   a  parterre;    but  instead   of    the   intervening   spaces   in   the 

bed  being  ordinary  walks   they   are   of  grass.     Such  beds   are 

of  a  useful  type,  because  they  may  be  made  large  and  yet  be 


CARPET  -  BEDDING 


249 


executed  with  a  comparatively  small  number  of  plants.  They 
are  especially  suitable  for  the  center  of  an  open  plot  of  lawn 
with  definite  formal  boundaries  on  all  sides,  such  as  walks 
or  drives.  Whether  they  are  to  be  composed  of  tall-growing 
or  of  low-growing  plants  wrill  depend  upon  the  distance  they 
are  to  be  from  the  observer.  For  a  moderate  sized  plot  the 
following  plants  might  be  used: 

No.  13.  — Border,  red   alternanthera;    second  row,  dwarf   orange 
or  yellow    nasturtium;   third    row,  Achyranthes    Gilsoni,    or 


191.    Carpet-bed   for  a  bay  or  recession  in  the  border   planting. 

Acalypha  tricolor;  central  square,  scarlet  geraniums,  with  a 
border  of  Centaurea  gymnocarpa,  intervening  spaces,  grass. 
Instead  of  the  square  of  geraniums,  a  vase  might  be  sub- 
stituted, or  a  clump  of  Salvia  splendens. 

No.  14.  — Composite  beds  like  this  and  the  former  are  always 
suggestive.  They  contain  various  features  which  may  readily 
be  re-combined  into  other  patterns.  Sometimes  it  may  be 
convenient  to  use  only  portions  of  the  design.  The  reader 


250       PLANTING    THE    ORNAMENTAL    GROUNDS 

should  feel  that  no  arrangement  is  arbitrary,  but  merely  a 
suggestion  which  he  may  use  with  the  utmost  freedom,  only 
keeping  harmony  in  view.  For  No.  14,  the  following  may  be 
an  acceptable  planting  arrangement;  Border,  Mme.  Solleroi 
geranium  ;  small  dots,  dwarf  scarlet  tropffiolum;  diamonds, 
blue  lobelia ;  crescents,  Stevia  serrata  variegata ;  inner 
border,  crimson  achyranthes  or  coleus  ;  loops,  Centaurea 
gymnocarpa;  wedge-shape  portions,  scarlet  geranium. 


Another  circular  carpet-bed. 


No.  15.  — Suitable  for  a  corner.  Border,  red  alternanthera; 
second  row,  Alternanthera  aurea  nana ;  third  row,  red 
alternanthera;  center,  Echeveria  Calif ornica. 

No  16.  — Border,  crimson  alternanthera  (another  border  of 
yellow  alternanthera  might  be  placed  inside  of  this) ;  ground, 
Echeveria  secunda  glauca  ;  inner  border,  Oxalis  tropaeoloides; 
center,  Alternanthera  aurea  nana.  Or,  inner  border,  Ech- 
everia Calif  ornica;  center,  crimson  alternanthera. 

No.  17. —Another   bed   intended    to   nil    an    angle.       Its    cur\7ed 


PLANTS     FOE    EDGINGS  251 

side  will  also  fit  it  for  use  with  a  circular  design.  Border, 
dwarf  blue  ageratum  ;  circle,  blue  lobelia  ;  ground  (3  parts), 
crimson  alternanthera. 

Other  carpet    or  mosaic  beds   (after   Long),  with   the  plants 
indicated,  are  shown  in  Figs.  191,  192. 


3.     Edgings    and    Mass-beds 

PLANTS     FOR     EDGINGS,     BORDERS     AND     RIBBON-BEDS 
(Blooming  all  summer') 

AGERATUM  MEXICANUM,  Hh.*  Dwarf  blue,  Height,  9  inches. 
Sow  when  danger  of  frost  is  over,  in  the  open  ground;  or 
for  early  plauts,  in  March,  in  the  greenhouse  or  hotbed. 
Plant  them  G  inches  apart. 

ALYSSUM  (Sweet)  H.  White.  Of  spreading  habit,  growing  6  to 
8  inches  high.  A  valuable  plant.  Treatment  the  same  as 
for  ageratum. 

CANDYTUFT,  H.  The  annual  kinds  are  useful  bedding  plants. 
The  white  and  carmine  sorts  are  the  best  colors.  Height, 
1  foot.  The  dwarf  Iberis  offinis  grows  only  about  6  inches 
high.  Its  colors  are  white,  rose,  and  purple.  Treatment 
similar  to  the  last.  When  sown  early,  transplant  while 
small  to  pots. 

CLARKIA.      See  Annuals,  page  259. 

GILIA.     See  Annuals,  page  259. 

LOBELIA  ERINUS,  Hh.  P.  Of  compact,  trailing  habit.  Small 
blue  flowers.  Height,  6  inches.  Crystal  Palace  is  perhaps 
the  best.  Sow  in  a  hotbed  or  greenhouse  in  January. 

MARIGOLD.     See  Annuals,  page  261. 

NEMOPHILA.     See  Annuals,  page  261. 

PORTULACA,  T.  Beautiful  and  brilliant,  for  either  lines,  edg- 
ings, or  masses  — especially  the  double  sorts.  The  flowers 
are  like  little  roses,  and  of  a  great  variety  of  shades  in 
scarlet,  white,  pink,  yellow,  and  purple.  Height,  6  inches. 
Blooms  from  July  till  frost.  Sow  thickly  in  the  open 

*H.,  Hh.   and    T.    P.,   hardy,   half-hardy    and    tender    perennial     re- 
spectively. 


252       PLANTING    THE    ORNAMENTAL    GROUNDS 

ground  when  danger  of  frost  is  past.  They  begin  to  flower 
soon,  and  any  single  ones  that  appear  may  be  removed. 
Thin  to  about  4  or  6  inches.  They  prefer  a  dry,  warm 
situation,  delighting  in  the  hottest  and  sunniest  weather. 

TORENIA,  T.  For  a  partially  shaded  situation,  as  with  pansies, 
these  are  attractive.  T.  Fournleri  has  porcelain-blue  and 
rich  violet  flowers.  Of  T.  Bailloni  the  flowers  are  deep 
yellow  and  maroon.  There  is  also  a  white  variety  known  as 
White  Wings.  Height,  6  inches  or  more.  Sow  in  March 
in  a  hotbed,  or  window.  They  must  have  a  temperature  of 
at  least  60°.  Plant  out  when  danger  of  frost  is  past. 

WHITLAVIA,  H.  Flowers  bell-shaped,  white  and  violet-blue,  or 
purple.  Height,  1  foot  or  more.  Should  have  light,  sandy 
soil  to  do  best.  Sow  in  the  open  ground  when  the  soil  is 
right,  and  danger  of  frost  is  over.  For  early  plants,  start  in 
March  in  a  temperature  of  about  60°. 


PLANTS  FOR   TROPICAL  EFFECTS,  MASSING 
(Or  for  the  center  or  back  of  a  group) 

The  number  of  plants  in  this  category  which  may 
be  readily  grown  from  seed,  is  limited.  Some  of  the 
best  kinds  are  included  below.  It  will  often  be  worth 
while  to  supplement  these  with  others,  to  be  had  at  the 
florists,  such  as  caladiums,  screw  pines,  Ficus  elastica, 
Musa  Ensete,  palms,  crotons,  and  others. 

In  the  use  of  such  plants,  there  are  opportunities  for 
the  exercise  of  the  nicest  taste.  A  gross  feeder,  as 
the  ricinus,  in  the  midst  of  a  bed  of  delicate  annuals, 
is  like  a  lion  among  lambs;  and  a  stately,  royal- 
looking  plant  among  humbler  kinds  often  makes  the 
latter  look  common,  when  if  headed  with  a  chief  of 
their  own  rank  all  would  appear  to  the  best  advantage. 

AMARANTHUS,  T.  These  have  ornamental  foliage  and  make 
handsome  plants  for  the  center  of  beds.  The  seeds  may 
be  sown  in  a  warm  hotbed  temperature  in  March,  and  the 
young  plants  set  out  about  the  first  of  June.  Seed  saved 


PLANTS    FOR    EDGINGS  253 

from  the  best  kinds  will  produce  some  inferior  plants,  so  it 
is  well  to  plant  three  or  four  together.  When  they  show 
their  color,  all  but  the  best  one  may  be  removed  or  cut  off. 
A,  tricolor  is  the  well-known  "Joseph's  Coat."  The  leaves  are 
red,  yellow  and  green.  Height,  3  feet.  A.  caudatus  grows 
to  a  similar  height,  is  of  drooping  habit  and  has  fine  red 
foliage.  A.  salicifolius  is  of  drooping  habit,  and  from  its 
graceful  appearance  has  received  the  name  of  the  "Fountain 
Plant."  It  attains  a  height  of  4  feet. 

ARALIA,  Hh.  P.  A.  Sieboldii,  or  Fatsia  Japonica  as  it  is  some- 
times called,  and  the  variety  variegata,  have  large  palm-like, 
leaves  and  a  rather  tropical  appearance.  Height  3  feet.  Sow 
in  February,  in  shallow  trays  and  light  soil,  in  a  temperature 
of  65°.  Continue  the  temperature.  When  two  or  three  leaves 
have  formed,  transplant  into  other  trays  1  inch  apart.  Sprinkle 
them  with  a  fine  rose  or  spray;  and  do  not  allow  them  to 
suffer  for  water.  Later,  transfer  them  to  small  pots  and 
repot  them  as  they  grow.  Plant  out  in  beds  after  the  weather 
has  become  warm  and  settled. 

CANNAS,  T.  P.  These  are  well  known  and  are  among  the  most 
ornamental  and  important  plants  used  in  decorative  garden- 
ing. They  make  fine  herbaceous  hedges,  groups,  masses, 
and— when  desirable— good  center  plants  for  beds.  They  grow 
from  3  to  10  feet  or  more  high.  Formerly  they  were  valued 
chiefly  for  their  magnificent  foliage,  but  since  the  intro- 
duction, in  1884,  of  the  Crozy  Dwarf  French  type  with  their 
splendid  flowers,  cannas  are  grown  as  much  for  their  flowers 
as  for  their  foliage  effects.  The  flowers  of  these  new  kinds 
are  as  large  as  those  of  gladioli,  and  are  of  various  shades 
of  yellow  and  red,  with  banded  and  spotted  forms.  These 
grow  about  3  feet  high.  The  older  forms  are  taller.  In  both 
sections  there  are  green-leaved  and  dark  coppery-red-leaved 
varieties.  It  requires  two  years  to  raise  strong  plants  of 
the  canna  from  seed.  The  seeds  are  bullet-like  and  hard. 
File  a  small  notch  through  the  coat  of  each  seed— avoiding 
the  round  germinating  point.  Sow  in  light,  sandy  soil  where 
the  earth  may  be  kept  at  70°  till  after  germination.  After 
the  plants  have  got  well  up,  transplant  them  to  about 
3  or  4  inches  apart,  or  place  in  pots  three  inches 
wide,  in  good  rich  soil.  They  may  now  be  kept  at  60°, 


254      PLANTING    THE    ORNAMENTAL     GROUNDS 

Plant  out  when  there  is  no  longer  danger  of  frost.  The 
old  (foliage)  sorts  may  be  left  out  late  to  ripen  up  the  fleshy 
root-stocks.  Cut  the  tops  off  immediately  after  frost.  The 
roots  are  safe  in  the  ground  as  .long  as  it  does  not  freeze. 
Dig,  and  dry  or  "cure"  for  a  few  days,  then  winter  them  like 
potatoes  in  the  cellar.  It  is  a  common  mistake  to  dig  canna 
roots  too  early.  The  French  sorts  are  commonly  thought 
to  keep  best  if  kept  growing  somewhat  during  the  winter; 
but  if  managed  right,  they  may  be  carried  over  like  the 
others.  Immediately  after  frost,  cut  off  the  tops  next  the 
ground.  Cover  the  stumps  with  a  little  soil  and  leave  the  roots 
in  the  ground  till  well  ripened.  Clean  them  after  digging, 
and  cure  or  dry  them  for  a  week  or  more  in  the  open  air 
and  sun,  taking  them  indoors  at  night.  Then  place  them 
away  from  frost  in  a  cool,  dry  place. 

MAIZE,  T.  The  variegated  Japanese  corn,  Zea,  Japonica  varie- 
gata,  is  a  splendid  variegated  plant  for  the  center  or  back 
of  beds,  clumps,  etc.  The  leaves  are  striped  with  white. 
Sow  out  of  doors  when  there  is  no  longer  danger  of  frost. 
It  is  well  to  have  at  least  three  plants  in  a  group  for  beds. 
This  variety  grows  only  about  4  feet  high. 

RICINUS,  T.  This  is  the  well-known  castor  oil  plant.  It  has 
a  very  tropical  appearance,  and  may  be  used  as  a  single 
specimen  on  the  lawn,  for  a  hedge-like  row,  or  for  the  cen- 
ter of  large  beds,  especially  with  cannas  and  caladiums. 
The  plant  branches  freely  and  grows  to  a  height  of  9-12 
feet  or  more.  Leaves  large  and  palmate.  Start  the  seed  in 
small  pots  in  March  in  a  temperature  of  60°  or  more,  and 
plant  out  when  the  weather  is  settled.  The  seed  may  also 
be  started  in  the  open  ground.  Give  them  a  dry  situation 
and  deep,  rich  soil.  The  variety  R.  Cambodgensis  has  bronzy 
foliage  and  is  one  of  the  best,  growing  about  6  feet  high. 
B.  JBorboniensis  attains  a  height  of  15  feet,  and  It,  Zanzi- 
bariensis  likewise. 

WIGANDIA,  T.  P.  This  plant,  although  perennial,  should  be  grown 
from  the  seed  each  year.  It  has  leaves  2  or  3  feet  long  by 
half  as  wide,  and  grows  4  feet  high.  The  stems  are  cov- 
ered with  red  hairs,  and  the  leaves  are  handsomely  veined. 
The  plant  requires  room  and  light,  and  is  most  suitable  for 
spacious  grounds,  where  it  may  be  used  for  massing  or  as 


ANNUAL  FLOWERS  25 

single  specimens  for  the  lawn.  W.  macrophylla  and  W. 
Vigieri  are  to  be  had  of  seed-dealers.  Sow  the  seed  in 
February  or  March  in  a  temperature  averaging  65°  to  70°. 
Transplant  at  first  to  boxes,  afterward  to  pots,  and  grow  till 
time  for  planting  out. 


4.     Annuals 

Many  of  the  showy  annuals  are  especially  well  suited 
to  growing  In  masses,  while  the  dwarf  kinds  make  fine 
flowery  edging  for  beds  or  walks.  It  is  also  possible  to 
make  handsome  ribbon-beds  with  the  dwarf  sorts;  but 
here,  as  shearing  is  well  nigh  precluded,  we  should  limit 
ourselves  to  simple  designs.  For  the  best'  effects,  much 
depends  both  upon  a  judicious  selection  of  kinds,  and 
arrangement.  In  purchasing  seeds,  it  is  best  to  buy  the 
different  colors  in  separate  packages,  and  to  buy  the  best. 
Hardy  annuals  are  such  as  develop  readily  without  the 
aid  of  artificial  heat.  They  are  commonly  sown  in  May 
or  earlier,  directly  in  the  open  ground  where  they  are 
to  grow.  Florists  often  sow  certain  kinds  in  the  fall, 
and  winter  the  young  plants  in  coldframes.  They  may 
also  be  wintered  under  a  covering  of  leaves  or  evergreen 
boughs.  The  half-hardy  and  tender  annuals  are  alike  in 
that  they  require  more  warmth  for  their  germination  and 
growth.  They,  like  the  hardy  kinds,  may  be  sown  in  the 
open  ground,  but  not  until  the  weather  has  become  settled, 
and  warm,  which  for  the  tender  kinds  will  not  commonly 
be  before  the  first  of  June.  A  few  of  the  annuals  thrive 
in  partial  shade  or  where  they  receive  sunshine  for  half 
the  day;  but  most  of  them  prefer  a  sunny  situation. 

Any  good  garden  soil  is  suitable  for  annuals.  If  not 
naturally  fertile  and  friable,  it  should  be  made  so  by  the 
application  of  well  rotted  stable -manure  or  humus.  The 
spading  should  be  at  least  one  foot  deep.  The  upper  six 
inches  is  then  to  be  given  a  second  turning  to  pulverize 


256      PLANTING    THE    ORNAMENTAL    GROUNDS 

and  mix  it.  After  making  the  surface  fine  and  smooth, 
the  soil  should  be  pressed  down  with  a  board.  The  seed 
may  now  be  sprinkled  on  the  soil  in  lines  or  concentric 
circles,  according  to  the  method  desired.  After  covering 
the  seed,  the  soil  should  be  pressed  down  with  a  board. 
This  promotes  capillarity,  by  which  the  surface  of  the 
soil  is  better  supplied  with  moisture  than  would  be  possi- 
ble otherwise.  Always  mark  the  kind  and  position  of 
all  seed  sown  with  a  label. 

While  many  kinds  of  annuals  may  be  sown  directly  in 
the  open  ground,  some  of  the  sorts,  especially  the  tender 
ones,  will  flower  sooner  in  the  season  and  give  much 
more  satisfaction  if  sown  early  under  cover.  The  majority 
of  these  may  be  sown  about  the  middle  of  March,  but 
some  must  be  sown  in  February.  Where  but  a  few 
are  to  be  grown,  a  sunny  window  answers,  especially 
for  March  sowings ;  but  it  is  more  satisfactory  to  have 
a  hotbed,  or  greenhouse,  at  command.  The  danger  with 
early  sown  seedlings  is  "drawing  up,"  and  weakness 
from  crowding  and  want  of  light.  This  is  most  liable 
to  occur  with  window -grown  plants.  Vigorous  June -sown 
plants  are  better  than  such  weaklings. 

Poppies,  bartonia,  Venus'  looking-glass,  the  dwarf 
convolvulus,  lupinus,  and  malope  do  not  bear  trans- 
planting well.  It  is  best,  therefore,  to  sow  them  where 
they  are  to  grow.  Some  annuals  do  not  bloom  all  sum- 
mer, especially  if  allowed  to  produce  seed.  Of  such 
kinds  a  second  or  third  sowing  at  intervals  will  provide 
a  succession.  Preventing  the  formation  of  seeds,  if  possi- 
ble, is  like  manure  to  annuals,  in  prolonging  their  life 
and  flowering. 

Below  is  given  an  annotated  list  of  some  of  the  best 
continuous  flowering  kinds,  which  may  be  raised  from 
seed.  The  terms  hardy,  half-hardy  and  tender  are  ab- 
breviated H.,  Hh.,  and  T.  respectively.  Perennials  are 
indicated  by  P. ;  all  others  are  annuals. 


ANNUALS 


257 


ALONSOA,    Hh.,   P.     Rich    scarlet    flowers.      A    white    variety 
is   also   to    be    had.    Height,  1%    to  2   feet.     They  may  be 
propagated     both    by    seeds    and    cuttings.      They   need     a 
Ifght,    rich  soil.     Sow  the   seeds   in    February,    in  the    hot- 
bed or  greenhouse,  and  plant  them  out  in  May,  1  foot  apart. 
ASTERS,    Hh.     These    fall    flowers,    known    as    the    China    and 
German    asters,     present     an    almost     endless    number    of 
varieties.      The    flowers    are 
large,  double  and  of   various 
shades  of  red,  blue  and  white. 
Some  of  them,  especially  the 
Washington        asters,      rival 
chrysanthemums.    They  grow 
from  1  to  2  feet  high.     Sow 
in    the  middle    of    March,  in 
a  coldframe,  or  in   the   open 
ground,     in    early    May.       If 
sown    in  the    fall     and    win- 
tered in   a  cool    greenhouse, 
they  may  be    had     in  bloom 
in  the  spring.    For  fine  flow- 
ers   they   should    have    rich 
soil,    stand    about     10    to    12 
inches   apart,   and   never   re- 
ceive any  check. 
Bailey    writes    as    follows   on 
these    flowers  (Bull.  90,  Cornell 
Exp.  Sta.) :     "  The  China  asters 
are  among  the    best   of    all   the 
annual   garden   flowers.        They 
are  of  the  easiest  culture,  most 
free  of   bloom,  and    comprise  a 
multitude    of   forms  and   colors.  193'    Bowing  the  habit  of  one  of 
They    are    therefore     admirably      the  types  of  tall  asters, -Truf- 

faut  s  peony- flowered, 
adapted    to    profuse    and     gen- 
erous effects   in  schemes  of  planting.     They  are  also  worthy  of 
wide   attention   because  they  are   adapted  to  many  of    the  pur- 
poses  for  which   chrysanthemums  are  grown,   and  they  can  be 
raised    to  perfection  wholly  without  use  of   glass.     They  attain 
their  best  in  the   decline   of  the  season,   from   late  August  till 


258     PLANTING    THE    ORNAMENTAL    GROUNDS 

frost,  at  a  time  when  many  of  the  .annuals  and  the  greater 
part  of  the  perennials  are  spent  and  gone.  No  garden  flow- 
ers carry  such  a  profusion  of  bloom  and  color  down  to  the 
very  closing  in  of  winter.  Last  fall  our  aster  border  still  had 
blooms  when  the  snows  fell  in  November,  and  when  even  the 
wild  goldenrods  had  waned  and  died." 

BARTONIA,  H.  Flowers  golden  yellow,  glistening  in  the  sun- 
light ;  fragrant  in  the  evening;  flowering  all  summer.  _Z?- 
aurea  grows  3  feet  high,  while  B.  aurea  nana  attains  a 
height  of  1%  feet.  They  need  a  moist  situation  and 
should  always  be  grown  in  masses.  Sow  early,  where  they 
are  to  grow.  The  dwarf  may  be  planted  1  foot  apart;  the 
former,  2  feet. 

BRACHYCOME,  Hh.  Handsome  for  either  edgings  or  masses. 
The  flowers  somewhat  resemble  those  of  the  single  daisy, 
and  are  fine  for  cutting.  The  original  color  was  blue,  but 
there  is  now  also  a  white  variety.  Plant  bushy;  1  foot 
high.  Start  the  seed  in  March,  in  a  hotbed  or  other 
warm  place.  They  may  also  be  sown  the  last  of  May,  in 
the  open,  but  bloom  later.  Set  the  plants  6  to  8  inches 
apart  in  beds. 

CALLIOPSIS  (Coreopsis),  H.  Splendid  for  rich  and  strong  effects. 
Of  rapid  growth  and  slender,  branching  habit,  they  attain 
a  height  of  3  feet  or  more.  They  flower  all  summer,  and 
are  useful  for  cutting.  The  colors  are  orange,  yellow,  and 
rich,  reddish  brown.  The  plants  must  have  room  to  spread. 
Two  feet  will  be  close  enough.  The  seed  may  be  sown  at  the 
end  of  March,  in  the  open  ground,  as  these  plants  are  of 
very  hardy  nature.  For  very  early  bloom  the  plants  should 
should  be  grown  in  mild  heat,  and  set  out  in  May.  Core- 
opsis lanceolata  and  its  variety,  "Golden  Glory,"  are  closely 
allied  hardy  perennials,  growing  only  from  12  to  18  inches 
high.  Their  flowers  are  golden  yellow,  and  the  plants  are 
of  dense,  low,  leafy  habit. 

CHRYSANTHEMUM,  H.  Of  the  annual  Chrysanthemums,  C. 
multicaule  and  C.  coronarium  are  of  especial  value  as  bed. 
ders.  The  former  has  yellow  flowers,  and  grows  to  a  height 
of  4  feet.  The  latter  grows  but  1%  feet  high,  and  is  white. 
Both  flower  freely  all  summer.  Sow  the  seed  in  March, 
in  a  mild  hotbed,  or  in  the  house  for  early  flowering  plants. 


ANNUALS  259 

Or  they  may  be  sown  where  they  are  to  grow  as  soon  as 
the  soil  will  permit.  The  latter  needs  about  one  foot  space 
in  the  beds;  the  former  more. 

CLARKIA,  H.  A  bed  of  the  double  white  or  rose-colored  C. 
elegans  is  very  beautiful.  The  plants  grow  1%  feet  high. 
They  may  also  be  used  for  edgings  to  beds  of  taller  plants. 
The  dwarf  variety,  called  White  Tom  Thumb,  grows  only 
about  10  inches  high.  They  grow  in  any  soil.  Sow  the  seed 
in  March,  or  later,  in  the  open  ground.  For  very  early 
bloom  sow  the  seed  in  Septembe'r.  If  the  winter  is  mild 
they  will  survive.  A  few  can  always  be  depended  on.  Plant 
them  1  foot  apart,  in  an  open  situation. 

ESCHSCHOLTZIA,  H.  (Fig.  194).  Originally  from  California. 
Known  as  the  California  poppy.  One  foot  in  height;  foliage 
greyish.  Flowers  yellow,  orange,  and  white,  produced  all 
summer.  Also  to  be  had  in  double  varieties.  Of  easy 
culture.  The  seeds  may  be  sown  in  the  open  border  in 
spring  as  soon  as  the  ground  will  permit.  But  it  is  best 
to  obtain  seeds  during  the  summer  or  fall,  as  soon  as  they 
are  ripe,  and  sow  for  the  following  season  where  they  are  to 
grow.  Thin  to  about  10  inches  apart. 

GAILLARDIA,  Hh.  These  are  beautiful;  the  only  objection  to 
them  is  that  the  seeds  germinate  slowly,  and  must  be  sown 
as  early  as  February  in  the  greenhouse  or  a  hotbed.  They 
do  best  in  a  rich,  light  soil.  The  plants  grow  2  feet  high 
and  flower  freely  through  the  summer  and  fall.  Set  the 
plants  from  12  to  18  inches  apart.  G.  amblyodon  is  a  fine 
red.  G.  picta  (Aurora  Borealis)  is  scarlet  and  yellow. 

GILIA,  H.  Of  the  Gilias,  G.  achiUecefolia ,  G.  rosea  and  G. 
Unifolia  are  satisfactory  and  pretty  for  bedding.  The  first 
two  grow  1  foot  or  more  in  height,  the  one  being  blue,  the 
other  rose-color.  The  last  mentioned  grows  but  6  inches 
high  and  has  white  flowers.  It  is  a  good  edging  kind.  They 
bloom  through  the  spring  and  summer  and  are  desirable  for 
cutting.  Unless  done  when  they  are  very  small  they  do  not 
transplant  well.  It  is  a  good  plan,  therefore,  to  sow  the  seed 
in  the  fall  where  they  are  to  grow,  and  cover  the  beds 
lightly  during  winter  with  leaves. 

GODETIA,  H.  These  bloom  profusely  and  continuously  from  early 
till  late,  and  are  very  handsome.  Colors,  red,  pink,  and 


194.     Eschscholtzia  maritima  of  florists.     One-half  size. 


ANNUALS  261 

white,  several  shades.  They  grow  to  a  height  of  about  IX 
feet.  Let  them  stand  a  foot  or  more  apart.  They  grow  too 
freely  in  rich  soil,  so  should  be  planted  in  rather  poor. 
Sow  the  seed  in  March  in  a  hotbed  and  transplant  them  to 
their  beds  the  latter  half  of  May,  or  when  the  weather  has 
become  settled. 

MARIGOLD,  H.  Three  or  four  species  of  this  plant  (Tagetes) 
are  found  in  gardens,  and  are  old  friends.  The  African 
grow  about  2  feet  high  and  are  valuable  for  mass  effects 
and  distant  groups.  Some  object  to  them  on  account  of  the 
.  ill-scent  of  the  herbage  when  handled.  The  flowers  are 
large,  yellow,  or  orange,  and  come  in  summer  and  autumn. 
Sow  the  seeds  in  a  coldframe  in  March,  and  transplant 
them  to  beds  in  May,  14  inches  apart  or  more.  The  Dwarf 
French,  of  yellow  and  brown  colors,  are  suitable  for  closer 
planting  in  small  beds  and  borders.  Legion  of  Honor  is  a 
pretty  dwarf. 

MIMULUS,  H.  P.  Under  this  genus  may  be  mentioned  M.  hybri- 
dus  cupreus  as  a  useful  kind.  The  flowers  are  bright,  of 
mixed  colors,  orange  and  crimson,  and  are  produced  from 
early  till  late.  The  plant  grows  IK  ieet  in  height.  It  does 
best  when  somewhat  shaded,  but  is  not  particular  about  the 
soil.  Sow  in  the  open  as  soon  as  it  is  dry  enough. 

NASTURTIUM.     See  Tropa3olum. 

NEMOPHILA.,  H.  For  a  shady  situation  this  plant  is  delicate 
and  pretty.  JV.  insignis  grows  1  foot  high,  and  blooms  all 
summer.  Flowers  blue.  Sow  in  March  in  a  frame  and 
transplant  early.  Set  them  6  inches  apart  in  the  beds.  Fall- 
sown  plants  do  nicely  during  the  winter  in  a  cool  green- 
house. 

PANSY,  H.  The  pansy  is  generally  mentioned  with  plants  suit- 
able for  partial  shade,  but  it  also  thrives  in  other  localities, 
especially  where  the  sun  is  not  very  hot  nor  the  weather 
very  dry.  It  thrives  at  a  low  temperature.  The  seed  should 
be  sown  in  the  fall  (September)  if  possible,  in  light,  rich 
well  prepared  soil.  When  they  are  well  up  they  may  be 
transplanted  to  good,  rich,  loamy  soil,  3  or  4  inches 
apart.  A  frame  or  sheltered  spot  is  the  proper  place.  Here 
they  may  be  covered,  at  the  approach  of  cold  weather,  with 
a  frame,  with  evergreen-boughs,  or  boards,  to  be  removed 


262      PLANTING    THE    ORNAMENTAL    GROUNDS 

whenever  the  weather  is  mild.  The  plants  will  make  a  good 
growth  before  cold  weather,  and  will  be  ready  for  a  mass 
of  bloom  the  following  spring.  In  hot  summer  weather  they 
bloom,  but  the  flowers  become  small.  Pansies  delight  in 
cool  weather  and  moisture.  They  may  also  be  sown  in  the 
spring  as  soon  as  the  ground  can  be  worked,  but  fall  sow- 
ing is  generally  preferable. 

PAPAVER,  H.  Poppies  are  of  the  most  brilliant  tulip-like  colors. 
The  Shirley  race  is  distinct  and  of  special  value  for  bedding. 
For  continuity  of  bloom,  allow  no  seed-pods  to  develop.  The 
plants  grow  1  foot  in  height.  A  sandy  loam  suits  them  best. 
The  Shirleys  bloom  the  first  year.  As  they  do  not  bear 
transplanting,  sow  the  seed  in  early  spring  where  they  are 
to  grow. 

PETUNIA,  H.  P.  Well  known,  and  by  all  accorded  a  place  near 
the  head  of  the  list  of  bedding  plants.  The  single  blotched, 
plain  or  fringed  are  preferable,  as  bedders,  to  the  double. 
The  colors  are  white  and  crimson.  Height,  2  feet.  Countess 
of  Ellesmere  is  a  pink  of  solid  color,  excepting  its  white 
throat.  It  is  of  compact  habit,  and  comes  practically  true 
from  seed.  Petunias  do  well  in  any  garden,  and  may  be 
sown  early  in  the  hotbed,  coldframe,  or  later  in  the  open 
ground.  Set  the  plants  18  inches  apart,  and  they  will  be 
a  mass  of  bloom  all  summer. 

PHLOX  DRUMMONDII,  H.  For  clear  and  brilliant  colors,  the 
many  varieties  of  this,  the  only  annual  species  of  the  Phlox 
genus,  are  certainly  unrivaled.  The  dwarf  kinds  are  the 
more  desirable  for  ribbon  beds,  as  they  are  not  so  "leggy." 
There  are  whites,  pinks,  reds  and  variegated  of  the  most 
dazzling  brilliancy.  The  dwarfs  grow  10  inches  high,  and 
bloom  continuously.  Set  them  8  inches  apart  in  good  soil. 
Seed  may  be  sown  in  the  open  ground  in  May,  or  for  early 
plants,  in  the  hotbed  in  March.  They  may  be  sown  close 
in  the  fall  if  sown  very  late,  so  that  the  seeds  will  not  start 
till  spring. 

POPPY.     (See  Papaver.) 

PORTULACA.     (See  Plants  for  Edging,  page  251.) 

SALVIA  SPLENDENS,  Hh.  P.  Of  the  numerous  species  of  this 
genus,  the  one  mentioned  is,  beyond  doubt,  the  best  foi 
garden  decoration,  and  has  long  been  a  favorite  for  thi? 


ANNUALS  263 

purpose.  The  plant  is  a  blaze  of  scarlet  all  summer. 
Height,  2  to  2%  feet.  Easily  grown.  Sow  the  seed  in  a 
temperature  of  60°  to  70°.  The  plants  may  be  set  out 
when  the  weather  has  become  settled.  Plant  18  inches 
apart. 

TROPCEOLUM  MINUS,  H.  The  Dwarf  Nasturtiums  grow  but 
1  foot  high.  They  flourish  in  the  hottest  weather,  and  in 
poor  soil.  The  flowers  are  scarlet,  golden,  cream,  pink, 
and  sometimes  almost  black,  and  borne  in  the  greatest 
profusion.  Fine  effects  are  produced  by  planting  them  so 
as  to  contrast  with  white  or  blue  flowers.  Sow  in  March, 
in  a  temperature  of  60°,  or  in  the  open  ground  like  the 
last. 

VERBENA,  Hh.  P.  Fig.  195.  Easily  grown  from  seed,  which 
may  be  started  in  a  hotbed  in  February  or  March.  Once 
transplanted,  the  plants  may  be  set  out  in  May.  Plant 
them  2  feet  apart,  or  farther  in  rich  soil.  They  love  a 
loam,  and  fresh  soil  each  year.  The  colors  are  white,  blue, 
red,  purple  and  pink,  of  various  shades.  Seedlings  cannot 
be  depended  on  when  the  separate  colors  are  wanted,  so 
it  is  better  to  buy  than  to  grow  them. 

ZINNIA,  H.  The  dull  colors  of  the  old-time  Zinnias  have 
given  place  to  the  brightest  shades  of  scarlet,  rose,  orange, 
and  yellow.  They  are  easily  grown  and  succeed  almost 
anywhere.  Height,  2  feet.  The  flowers  last  a  long  time, 
and  are  produced  from  June  till  frost.  Sow  in  the  open, 
when  danger  of  frost  is  past,  and  thin  the  plants  to  2 
feet  apart.  For  earlier  flowers,  sow  in  March,  in  the  win- 
dow, hotbed  or  greenhouse.  The  white  and  orange  Tom 
Thumb  are  dwarf— growing  about  6  or  8  inches  high— and 
may  be  used  for  edging. 

ANNUAL     CLIMBING     PLANTS 

The  following,  for    arbors,   verandas,    etc.,    are    some    of 
the   best   summer    climbers,    and    are    readily    grown    from 
seed,  flowering  the  first  season. 
BRYONOPSIS  LACINIOSA,  var.  ERYTHROCARPA,  Hh.    10  feet.    Small, 

scarlet  fruit,  striped  with  white,  about  the  size  of  cherries. 

Sow  in  the  garden  when  danger  of  frost  is  over.     Tendrils. 


195.    Bouquet  of  verbenas. 


CLIMBING    ANNUALS  265 

CARDIOSPERMUM  HALICACABUM,  Hh.  5  to  10  feet.  Has  an 
inflated  membranous  capsule,  and  is  also  known  as  Balloon 
Vine.  Sow  as  for  Bryonopsis. 

COBCEA  SCANDENS,  T.  P.  20  feet.  Flowers  the  first  season  if 
sown  in  March  or  earlier.  Flowers  purple.  Tendrils.  Sow 
in  light,  sandy  soil,  pressing  the  thin  seed  down  edgewise 
into  the  soil.  They  will  then  need  no  further  covering. 
60°  to  65°  will  suit  them.  Keep  the  soil  barely  moist  till 
they  are  up. 

CONVOLVULUS  MAJOR,  H.  15  feet.  Flowering  freely.  Showy. 
The  new  Japanese  strain  of  Morning-Glories  are  much 
more  brilliant  in  coloring.  Twining.  Sow  as  early  as  pos. 
sible,  in  a  warm,  sunny  place,  when  the  soil  is  suitable. 

DOLICHOS  LABLAB,  T.  10  to  20  feet.  Flowers  in  clusters, 
purple  and  white.  Sow  like  the  last.  Known  also  as  the 
Hyacinth  Bean.  Twining. 

ECCREMOCARPUS  SCABRA,  Hh.  P.  6  to  10  feet.  Flowers  tubular, 
in  clusters;  orange.  Graceful  and  pretty.  If  cut  down  in 
the  fall,  and  protected  with  leaves  or  straw,  it  will  shoot  up 
the  following  season.  Sow  early,  in  a  temperature  of  60° 
to  70°,  or  in  the  garden  when  the  soil  has  become  warm. 

HUMULUS  JAPONICUS,  T.  The  Japanese  Hop.  An  excellent, 
rapid  climber.  The  variety  variegatus  has  leaves  blotched 
with  white.  Twining.  15  feet.  Sow  in  deep,  rich  soil,  as 
soon  as  dry  enough. 

IPOMCEA  COCCINEA,  H.     10  feet   or  more.     Small  scarlet  flowers. 

Twining. 

I.  QUAMOCLIT,  T.  The  "Cypress  Vine."  Delicately  dissected 
green  foliage.  Flowers  rose,  white,  or  scarlet.  10  feet  or 
more.  Twining. 

I.  GRANDIFLORA,  and  others,  T.  The  "Moon  Flower,"  "Even- 
ing Glory."  20  to  30  feet.  Flowers  large,  white,  opening 
in  the  evening  twilight.  Twining.  The  last,  to  flower, 
should,  if  possible,  be  started  in  March.  A  temperature  of 
65°  or  70°  insures  rapid  germination.  If  a  small  notch  is 
cut  through  the  hard  shell,  the  seeds  germinate  in  four 
or  five  days.  The  other  kinds  may  be  started  early,  or 
sown  in  the  open  ground  after  danger  of  frost  is  past. 

MAURANDYA  BARCLAY  ANA,  Hh.  P.  A  delicate  and  slender 
climber.  Purple  flowers.  6  to  12  feet.  There  are  also  rose 


266      PLANTING    THE    ORNAMENTAL    GROUNDS 

and  white-flowered  varieties.  A  leaf  climber.  Sow  in 
March,  in  a  temperature  of  60°. 

SWEET  PEAS,  H.  4  feet  or  more.  Flowers  pink,  scarlet, 
purple,  blue,  white  and  yellow,  of  various  shades  ;  fragrant. 
Useful  for  cutting  and  for  low  screens.  The  Sweet  Pea  has 
been  much  improved  during  the  last  few  years,  and  has 
become  one  of  the  most  popular  flowers.  It  delights  in  a 
heavy,  though  deep  and  rich,  stiff  loam.  For  early  spring 
bloom,  sow  the  seed  in  the  fall,  4  or  5  inches  deep,  giving 
them  a  dry  situation.  In  the  spring  it  is  well  to  make 
several  sowings  at  intervals,  beginning  as  soon  as  the  frost 
is  out  of  the  ground.  The  other  sowings  may  be  at  inter- 
vals of  two  or  three  weeks  till  June.  A  successful  method 
is  to  sow  them  in  trenches  about  6  inches  deep,  covering 
them,  at  first,  with  only  one  inch  of  soil.  As  the  plants 
grow  the  trench  is  filled  up,  an  inch  at  a  time,  till  full. 
When  the  trench  is  about  full  they  should  be  copiously 
watered.  Provide  a  support  trellis  of  cords.  Brush,  as  for 
common  peas,  also  answers.  The  more  the  flowers  are 
cut  and  used,  the  better  it  is  for  the  plants.  Keeping  the 
pods  picked  off,  as  they  begin  to  grow,  will  prolong  and 
promote  flowering.  A  little  bone-meal  worked  into  the  sur- 
face of  the  soil,  among  the  plants,  also  has  a  good  effect. 
Varieties  of  the  Sweet  Pea  have  become  very  numerous,  and 
the  list  changes  from  year  to  year.  (See  writings  of  Hutch- 
ins,  and  Cornell  Bulletins  111  and  127.) 

PROP^EOLUM  MAJUS,  Hh.  Well  known,  commonly  under  the 
name  of  Nasturtiums.  Flowers  buff,  pink,  orange  and  scar- 
let. 10  6r  12  feet.  T.  peregrinum  is  the  "Canary  Bird 
Flower,"  and  is  of  more  delicate  appearance  than  the 
ordinary  kinds.  Flowers  pale  yellow,  fringed.  Leaves  pal- 
mately  lobed.  Leaf  climbers.  Sow  the  Tropa3olums,  espe- 
cially T.  peregrinum,  if  possible,  in  March,  in  a  tempera- 
ture of  55°  to  60°.  They  may  also  be  sown  in  the  garden 
where  they  are  to  grow,  when  it  is  safe.  Give  them 
rich,  light  soil. 


BULBS    AND    TUBERS  267 

5.     Bulbous  and  Tuberous  Plants 

THE  FALL- PLANTED  BULBS 

All  kinds  of  bulbs  are  partial  to  a  deep,  r.ch,  well- 
drained  soil.  This  is  no  small  part  of  their  successful 
culture.  The  site  selected  should  be  well -drained,  either 
naturally  or  artificially.  Again,  in  flattish  lands,  the 
beds  may  be  made  above  the  surface,  some  18  inches 
high,  and  bordered  with  grass.  A  layer  of  rough  stones 
a  foot  deep  is  sometimes  used  in  the  bottom  of  ordinary 
beds  for  drainage,  and  with  good  results,  where  other 
methods  are  not  convenient.  The  soil  for  beds  should 
be  well  enriched  with  old  manure.  Fresh  manure  should 
never  be  used  in  the  soil  about  bulbs,  The  addition  of 
leaf -mold  and  some  sand  also  improves  the  texture  of 
heavy  soils.  For  Lilies  the  leaf-mold  may  be  omitted. 
Let  the  spading  be  at  least  a  foot  deep.  Eighteen  inches 
will  be  none  too  deep  for  Lilies. 

The  bulbs  should  be  ordered  some  time  in  advance,  if 
possible,  and  are  to  be  planted  from  September  to  the 
middle  of  November.  All  kinds  of  bulbs  look  best 
planted  in  masses,  or  at  least  in  groups.  Details  as  to 
the  time,  depth  and  distance  apart  will  be  found  under 
the  several  kinds  mentioned  below. 

During  planting  or  previously, .  the  surface  of  the  beds 
should  be  made  somewhat  rounding,  to  prevent  water 
standing  on  them  in  winter,  which  is  always  likely  to 
work  damage.  A  layer  of  sand  below  the  surface,  or  a 
generous  handful  about  each  bulb,  will  also  materially 
assist  in  carrying  away  water  from  the  bulbs. 

As  the  time  of  severe  winter  freezing  approaches,  the 
ground  planted  to  bulbs  should  receive  a  mulch  of  leaves, 
manure,  or  litter,  to  the  depth  of  four  inches  or  more, 
according  to  the  latitude.  It  will  be  well  to  let  the 
mulch  extend  one  foot  or  more  beyond  the  border  of 


268      PLANTING    THE    ORNAMENTAL    GROUNDS 

the  beds.  When  cold  weather  is  past,  half  of  the  mulch 
should  be  removed.  The  remainder  may  be  left  on  till 
there  is  no  longer  danger  of  frost.  Upon  removing  the 
last  of  the  mulch,  lightly  work  over  the  surface  of  the 
soil  among  the  bulbs  with  a  thrust -hoe.  If  the  weather 
happens  to  be  very  bright  during  the  blooming  season, 
the  duration  of  the  flowers  may  be  prolonged  by  light 
shading — as  with  muslin,  or  slats  placed  above  the  beds. 
If  planted  where  they  have  partial  shade  from  surround- 
ing trees  or  shrubbery,  the  beds  will  not  need  attention 
of  this  kind. 

Lilies,  and  other  flowers  which  will  be  mentioned  below, 
may  remain  undisturbed  for  years.  Others  will  be  greatly 
benefited,  and  afford  more  satisfactory  results,  if  taken 
up  and  replanted  every  two  or  three  years.  Crocuses 
and  Tulips  may  stand  two  years,  but  Hyacinths  should 
be  taken  up  each  year  and  replanted,  as  will  be  ex- 
plained. Tulips  also  will  be  better  for  the  same  treat- 
ment. 

Bulbs  which  are  to  be  taken  up,  or  removed  in  the 
spring,  should  be  left  in  the  ground  after  flowering,  till 
the  foliage  turns  yellow,  or  dies  down  naturally.  This 
gives  the  bulbs  a  chance  to  ripen.  Cutting  off  the 
foliage  and  digging  too  early  is  a  not  uncommon  and 
serious  mistake.  Bulbs  which  have  been  planted  in  the 
border,  or  in  beds,  and  which  are  wanted  for  summer 
bedding-plants,  may  be  dug  with  the  foliage  on  and 
"heeled-in"  under  a  tree,  or  along  a  fence,  to  stand  till 
ripened.  The  foliage  should  be  injured  as  little  a^s  possi- 
'ble,  as  the  foliage  of  this  year  makes  the  flowers  of  the 
next.  When  the  foliage  has  turned  yellow  or  died  down, 
the  bulbs— after  cleaning,  and  curing  them  for  a  few 
hours  in  the  sun — may  be  stored  in  the  cellar  or  other 
cool,  dry  place,  to  await  fall  planting. 
^  Following  are  the  chief  kinds  of  bulbs  for  setting  in 
the  fall: 


RAISING    BULBS  269 

HYACINTHS.     The  bulbs  of  Hyacinths  may  be  planted  from  Octo- 
ber   till    freezing    weather.     Set    them    from   4   to    5    inches 
deep— a   little    shallower   in    heavy   soils— and   about   4   to   6 
inches  apart.     They  are  not  quite  hardy  at  the  North  unless 
protected,  so   should   always  have  a  winter  mulch  where  the 
ground    freezes    hard    in    winter.       Hyacinth    bulbs    are    all 
imported.     Over    200    varieties    are    extensively    grown,    but 
many    of  the  varieties   are  very   similar.    Most    any    of  the 
single    sorts    are    readily    forced.      Generally    speaking,    the 
singles    are  preferable.      For  bedding  purposes,  medium    or 
small-sized  bulbs  are  preferable  and  cheaper. 
TULIPS.     September   is   the   best  time   for  planting   these,   but 
as    the    beds    are   usually    occupied    at    this    time,    planting 
will   have   to   be   postponed   till   October  or  November.     For 
garden  culture  the  Single  Early   Tulips  are  the  best.     There 
are  Early   Double-flowered   varieties    also.     Some    prefer  the 
double,  as  their  flowers   last  longer.     Late   Tulips    are   gor- 
geous, but  occupy  the   beds   too   long   in  the  spring.     Tulips 
are  quite  hardy,  but  are   benefited  by  the  winter  mulch. 
For  simple  designs  in  colors,  they  are  the  most  brilliant  in 
effect   of   all   bulbs.     In   working  out  such  patterns,  the  utmost 
care   should    be    used   to   have   the   lines  and    curves   uniform, 
which   is   only   to  be   secured   by  marking  out  the  design,  and 
careful   planting.     Formal   planting   is,   however,    by  no  means 
necessary   for  pleasing  effects.      Borders,  lines  and   masses   of 
single  colors,  or  groups  of  mixed   colors  which  harmonize,  are 
always   in   order   and   pleasing.     Clear  colors   are   preferable  to 
neutral  tints.    As  varieties  vary  in  height  and  season  of  bloom- 
ing, only  named  varieties  should  be  ordered. 
CROCUS.     The  Crocus  is  useful  as  a  border-plant  for  other  beds, 
for  small  groups,  or  beds  to  itself.     It  loves  a  sunny  situa- 
tion and  a  well-drained  soil.     Two  kinds  are  commonly   cul- 
tivated.     One    is    the    Autumn    Crocus    (C.    sativus).     The 
other  is  the  spring-flowering    (C.  versicolor).     The   latter   is 
the   more  popular.     The  bulbs  should   be  planted  as  early  as 
possible,  and  not  later  than  the  first  of  October,  if  it  can  be 
avoided.     They  grow   if   kept   out   of   the   ground,  and   will, 
therefore,  suffer  when  planted   late.     It  is   advisable   to   get 
the  best  corms,  and  those  under  name. 
NARCISSUS.      Daffodils,  Jonquils  and   the    Poet's   Narcissus,  all 


196.    Tulips,  the  warmest  of  spring  flowers. 


RAISING    BULBS  271 

are  perfectly  hardy.  The  polyanthus  section,  however,  which 
includes  the  Paper-white  Narcissus,  and  Sacred  Lily  or 
Chinese  Joss-Flower,  are  not  hardy  except  with  unusually 
good  protection,  and  are,  therefore,  most  suitable  for  grow- 
ing indoors.  It  is  common  to  allow  the  hardy  sorts  to  take 
care  of  themselves  when  once  planted.  This  they  will  do, 
but  much  more  satisfactory  results  will  be  had  by  lifting 
and  dividing  the  clumps  every  three  or  four  years.  A  single 
bulb  in  a  few  years  forms  a  large  clump.  In  this  condition 
the  bulbs  are  not  properly  nourished,  and  consequently  do 
not  flower  well.  Lifting  is  preferably  done  in  August  or 
September,  when  the  foliage  has  died  down  and  the  bulbs 
are  ripe. 

These  flowers  are  well  suited  to  partially  shaded  places,  and 
will  grow  and  please  wherever  good  taste  may  place  them. 
They  should  be  freely  used,  as  they  are  fragrant,  bright  of 
color,  and  easily  managed— growing  among  shrubbery,  trees, 
and  in  places  where  other  flowers  would  refuse  to  grow.  They 
should  be  planted  in  clumps  or  masses,  in  September  or  Octo- 
ber, setting  the  bulbs  from  5  to  8  inches  apart,  according  to 
size,  and  3  or  4  inches  deep.  If  necessary  to  move  them  in 
the  spring,  follow  the  instructions  previously  mentioned  under 
Bulbs.  Several  species  and  numberless  varieties,  both  double 
and  single,  are  grown.  A  few  good  types  only  can  be  men- 
tioned. 
DAFFODILS,  OR  TRUMPET  NARCISSUS. 

Single-flowered,   Yellow.  —  Golden  Spur,  Trumpet  Major. 
White,—  Albicans. 

White  and  Yellow.— Empress,  Horsefieldi. 
Double-flowering,   Yellow.— Incomparable  fl.  pi.,  Von  Sion. 

White.— Alba  plena  odorata. 
POET'S  NARCISSUS,  OR  DAFFODIL.     Flowers  white,  with  yellow 

cups  edged  crimson.     Very  fragrant. 
JONQUILS.    These    have    very    fragrant     yellow    flowers,   both 

double  and  single,  and  are  old  garden  favorites. 
POLYANTHUS  NARCISSUS.    These  will  be  mentioned  under  the 

chapter  on  window  gardening. 

SNOW-DROP  (Galanthus  nivalis).  These  are  well  known.  The 
snow  is  scarcely  gone  before  they  appear.  When  once 
planted,  they  may  remain  for  years.  Plant  thick,  in 


272      PLANTING    THE    ORNAMENTAL    GROUNDS 

groups  or  masses  in  the  border,  or  scatter  them  about  the 
lawns.  September  or  October  is  the  proper  season. 
CHIONODOXA.  Spikes  of  intense  blue  flowers,  coining  with 
Snow-drops,  and  lasting  a  long  time  in  perfection.  Plant 
them  like  Snow-drops,  as  early  in  the  fall  as  the  bulbs 
can  be  ootained. 

SCILLA  (Scilla  Sibiriea).  Also  known  as  the  Star  Hyacinth. 
Flowers  blue,  coming  early,  like  the  last.  They  may  be 
used  like  Snow-drops.  The  bulbs  should  be  planted  2 
inches  deep,  in  October,  to  remain  undisturbed  thereafter. 
WINTER  ACONITE  (Eranthis  hyemalis).  Bright  yellow  blos- 
soms, appearing  even  before  the  Snow-drops,  and  continu- 
ing in  flower  for  several  weeks.  Perfectly  hardy,  growing 
about  3  inches  high.  Plant  them  as  soon  as  obtained. 
They  require  little  attention  after  once  planting.  All  of 
the  last  four  genera  will  grow  in  any  garden  soil. 
LILY-OF-THE-VALLEY  ( Convallaria)  '.  These  are  of  the  easiest 
culture,  and  no  garden  is  complete  without  them.  All  that 
is  necessary  is  some  shade  and  a  good  loamy  or  sandy 
soil.  The  pips  may  be  planted  any  time  from  Novem- 
ber on. 

LILIES.      If    good    drainage    is   provided,    Lilies    will    grow    in 
any  ordinary,   fairly   rich   soil.     The   instructions  previously 
given  may  be  followed,  but  it  is  not  necessary  to  make  the 
soil  as   light   as   is    sometimes   done.      Deep    working,    how- 
ever,   is   always   desirable;    18  inches,    or   even   2   feet,    will 
be   none   too   deep.      A   layer  of    sand,  or   a  handful   placed 
about    each   bulb,    is    excellent   practice.      For    all    Lilies    it 
is  safer  to  provide  good  winter  protection  in  the  form  of  a 
mulch   of  leaves  or  manure,   and  extending  beyond  the  bor- 
ders   of    the    planting.      This    should   be    from    5   inches   to 
a  foot  deep,  according  to  the  latitude  or  locality. 
Where  Lilies  are  to  be  moved  from  one  part  of  the  grounds 
to  another,  it  may  be  done  'carefully  in  the  spring  .after  growth 
has    started.     They   should  be    guarded   against  becoming  dry, 
and   replanted   as   quickly   as  possible.     Most  of  the  Lilies  like 
partial  shade.     Planting  them  where  they  will  be  shaded  from 
the  hot   noon-day  sun   by   shrubbery,   trees,    or    buildings,    not 
only  tends  to  improve  the  flowers,  but  helps  to  make  the  soil 
more  comfortable  for  the  bulbs  during  the  summer.     The  well- 


LILIES  273 

known    L.   candidum     is    an     exception,     preferring     an    open 

situation.     Plant  the  bulbs  of   Lilies  in  October  or  November, 

excepting  L.  candidum  and  L.    excelsum.     L.   auratum    should 

be  set  10  or  12  inches    deep;   the    others    from    4   to   6.     Some 

of  the  best  kinds  are  mentioned  below: 

L.  CANDIDUM  (Annunciation  Lily).  White.  3  to  4  feet  high. 
It  makes  an  autumn  growth,  and  should,  therefore,  be  planted 
in  August.  Set  the  bulbs  from  4  to  6  inches  deep. 

L.  SPECIOSUM    (L.    lancifolium),    var.    PR^ECOX.      White,   tinged 
with  pink;    bearing  several   flowers  on  a   stem  about   3  feet 
high. 
L.  SPECIOSUM  var.  RUBRUM.     Rose  color,  spotted  with  red. 

L.  BROWNII.  Flowers  white  inside,  chocolate-colored  outside. 
The  stems  grow  about  3  feet  high,  bearing  from  2  to  4 
tubular  flowers.  Not  difficult  to  manage  with  good  protec- 
tion and  drainage.  The  bulbs  are  impatient  of  being  long 
kept  out  of  the  ground.  After  planting,  they  should  not  be 
disturbed  as  long  as  they  flower  well. 

L.  HANSONI.  Dark  yellow.  Stems  3-4  feet  high;  each  produc- 
ing from  6  to  12  flowers. 

L.  EXCELSUM  (L.  IsabelUnunt).  Rich  buff  color,  with  delicate 
spots.  Plants  about  3-5  feet  high,  with  from  3  to  a  dozen 
flowers  on  a  stem.  Plant  the  bulbs  in  September. 

L.  LONGIFLORUM.  White.  Large  tubular  flowers,  2  to  8  on  a 
stem.  Height  about  2%  feet. 

L.  BATEMANN:^E.  Apricot  yellow.  Six  to  12  flowers  on 
stems  3-4  feet  high. 

L.  AURATUM  (Japanese  Gold-banded  Lily).  Immense  white 
flowers  banded  with  yellow  and  dotted  with  red  or  purple, 
from  3  to  12  on  a  stem.  Height.  3-4  feet.  The  bulbs 
need  thorough  protection,  good  drainage,  and  should  be 
planted  10  or  12  inches  deep. 

L.  LEICHTLINII.  Flowers  clear  yellow,  with  small,  dark  spots, 
10  to  12  on  a  stem.  Height,  4  feet. 

L.  MONADELPHUM.  Yellow  tubular-shaped  flowers  in  clusters 
of  6  to  a  dozen  or  more.  Stems  2%  feet  tall. 

L.  ELEGANS  (L.   Thunbergianum),  var.  ALICE  WILSON.     Lemon- 
yellow.     Stems  2  feet  high,  bearing  from  2  to  8  flowers. 
L.  ELEGANS,  var.    FULGENS   ATROSANGUiNEUM.     Dark   crimson. 
Height  1  foot. 

E 


274      PLANTING    THE    ORNAMENTAL    GROUNDS 


SUMMER  BULBS  AND  TUBERS 

GLADIOLUS.  Of  summer  and  fall-blooming  bulbous  plants 
these  are,  perhaps,  the  most  widely  popular.  The  showy 
kinds  cultivated  are,  with  rare  exceptions,  hybrids  or  their 
descendants.  The  colors  range  from  scarlet  and  purple,  to 
white,  rose,  and  pure  yellow.  The  plants  are  of  slender, 
erect  habit,  growing  from  2  to  3  feet  high.  They  dislike  a 
heavy  clay  soil.  A  light  loam  or  sandy  soil  suits  them  best. 
They  should  have  a  new  place  every  year,  if  possible,  and 
always  an  open  sunny  situation. 

The  corms  may  be  planted  2  inches  deep  in  heavy  soils, 
and  4  in  light  soils.  For  a  succession,  they  may  be  planted  at 
short  intervals,  the  earliest  planting  being  of  smaller  corms 
in  the  early  spring  as  soon  as  the  soil  is  dry  enough  to  work; 
later  the  larger  are  to  be  planted— the  last  setting  being  not 
later  than  the  Fourth  of  July.  This  last  planting  will  afford 
fine  late  flowers. 

The  successive  plantings  may  be  in  the  same  bed  among 
those  set  earlier,  or  they  may  be  grouped  in  unoccupied  nooks, 
or  portions  of  the  border.  The  plants  may  stand  as  close  as 
6  inches  from  each  other.  The  earlier  planting  may  be— say 
a  foot  apart  to  admit  of  later  settings  between. 

Late  in  the  fall,  after  frosts,  the  corms  are  to  be  dug,  cleaned, 
and  dried  in  the  sun  and  air  for  a  few  hours  and  then  stored 
away  in  boxes  about  2%  inches  deep  in  a  cool,  dark  and  dry 
place. 

The  varieties  are  perpetuated  and  multiplied  by  the  little 
corms  which  appear  about  the  base  of  the  large  new  corm 
which  is  formed  each  year.  These  small  corms  may  be 
taken  off  in  the  spring  and  sown  thickly  in  drills.  Many  of 
them  will  make  flowering  plants  by  the  second  season.  They 
are  treated  like  the  large  corms  in  the  fall. 

Gladioli  are  easily  grown  from  seed  also,  but  this  method 
can  not  be  depended  on  to  perpetuate  desirable  varieties,  which 
can  only  be  reproduced  by  the  cormels.  Some  of  the  best  flow- 
ers may  be  cross-pollinated,  or  allowed  to  form  seed  in  the 
usual  manner— the  seed  sown  thickly  in  drills,  and  shaded  till 
the  plautlets  appear,  then  carefully  cultivated,  will  afford  a 


GLADIOLUS    AND    DAHLIA  275 

crop  of  small  conns  in  the  fall.  These  may  be  stored  for  the 
winter,  like  the  other  young  corms,  and,  like  them,  many  will 
flower  the  second  season,  affording  a  great  variety,  and  quite 
likely  some  new  and  striking  kinds.  Those  which  do  not  flower 
should  be  reserved  for  further  trial.  They  often  prove  finer 
than  those  first  to  flower. 

GLADIOLUS  CHILDSII  is  the  name  under  which  is  being  sent  out 
a  set  of  tall-growing  varieties  with  very  large  flowers.  Of 
their  merits  the  writer  is  not  as  yet  prepared  to  speak  per- 
sonally. The  Lemoine  and  Leichtlinii  hybrids  are  interesting 
and  show  some  handsome  forms,  but  on  the  whole  are,  per- 
haps, not  as  desirable  for  general  purposes  as  some  other 
varieties. 

DAHLIA.  Of  showy  plants  for  the  garden,  there  are  none  more 
easily  cultivated.  The  double  or  Show  Dahlias  require 
only  plenty  of  food  and  moisture,  while  the  single  and 
other  kinds,  the  writer  has  found,  will  grow  and  flourish  in 
almost  any  soil,  and  under  any  of  the  conditions  ordinarily 
met  with  in  the  garden. 

The  various  sorts  may  be  grouped  into  five  classes.  The 
Show  Dahlia  is  the  large  familiar  double-flowered  type.  The 
Pompon  or  Bouquet  Dahlias  have  smaller  double  flowers, 
and  dwarfer  habit.  The  Cactus  Dahlia  has  flowers  with  broad, 
flat  florets,  which  are  somewhat  twisted,  giving  them  a  charac- 
teristic and  striking  appearance.  It  is  a  recent  type.  The 
Single  Dahlias  have  handsome  single  flowers  of  many  brilliant 
colors  and  styles  of  variegation.  The  Dwarf,  or  Bedding  class, 
is  mainly  single,  and  grows  only  1  or  2  feet  high.  They 
are  very  free  of  bloom  and  desirable  for  the  purpose  indicated 
by  their  name. 

One  objection  to  the  old  Dahlia  was  its  lateness  of  bloom. 
But  by  starting  the  roots  early  in  a  frame,  or  in  boxes  which 
are  covered  up  at  night,  the  plants  may  be  had  in  flower, 
several  weeks  earlier  than  usual.  They  may  be  started  in 
April,  or  at  least  three  weeks  in  advance  of  planting  time. 
Before,  or  shortly  after  starting  the  roots,  they  should  be 
divided  with  a  stout  knife  so  that  a  piece  of  old  stem,  with 
a  bud,  will  be  attached  to  each  tuber.  These  are  then  set  in 
the  box  in  the  moist  earth.  Little  water  will  be  required 
till  they  start.  When  they  begin  shooting  up,  the  plants 


276       PLANTING    THE    ORNAMENTAL    GROUNDS 

should  have  the  full  sun,  and  air,  on ,  all  mild  days.  They 
will  then  make  a  slow,  sturdy  growth.  All  forcing  should, 
be  avoided.  These  plants,  set  out  when  th<?re  is  no  longer 


197.    A  modern  dahlia  aud  its  ancestor.    Each  half  size. 

danger  of  frost,  and  well  watered  before  completely  covering 
the  roots,  will  grow  right  on,  and  often  commence  blooming 
in  July. 

Dormant  roots  may  be  set  out  in  May.  The  roots,  unless 
small,  should  be  divided  before  planting,  as  a  single  strong 
root  is  usually  better  than  a  whole  clump.  The  roots  of  all 
but  the  Dwarf  should  be  set  about  3  -feet  apart,  in  rows. 
In  poor  soils  none  but  the  first  class  will  need  stakes.  All 
but  these  the  writer  prefers  to  grow  in  rather  poor  soil,  and 


DAHLIA    AND    TUBEROSE  277 

not  water  unless  absolutely  necessary.  They  then  have  a 
dwarf er  habit,  and  if  the  flowers  are  not  so  large,  the  plants 
begin  to  bloom  soon  and  flower  profusely.  For  the  finest 
flowers,  however,  with  any  of  the  Dahlias,  a  rich  and  deep 
soil,  with  good  cultivation  and  artificial  watering  during  the 
summer,  are  the  requisites.  Staking  will  also  be  necessary. 

The  roots  may  be  left  in  the  ground  till  the  approach  of 
freezing  weather,  and  for  a  week  after  the  tops  have  been  cut 
by  the  frost.  When  dug  they  should  be  left  out,  exposed  to 
the  sun  and  air  for  a  couple  of  days  to  dry,  covering  them  at 
night  if  the  weather  is  frosty.  The  dry  soil  having  been 
shaken  off,  the  roots  may  be  stored  away  in  a  dry,  cool 
place.  Any  place  that  would  answer  for  potatoes  will  keep 
Dahlia  roots. 

In  addition  to  multiplication  by  division,  as  previously  men- 
tioned, Dahlias  are  also  easily  propagated  by  seeds,  and  cut- 
tings of  the  tender  shoots.  The  latter  should  always  be  cut 
just  below  a  joint,  so  that  there  will  be  a  pair  of  buds  near 
the  lower  end  of  the  cutting.  For  further  information  and 
varieties,  consult  Peacock  on  "The  Dahlia",  and  Cornell 
Bulletin  128. 

TUBEROSE.  This  plant,  with  its  tall  spikes  of  waxen  and 
fragrant  white  flowers,  is  well  known.  It  is  a  strong  feeder, 
and  loves  warmth,  plenty  of  water  while  growing,  and  a 
deep,  rich  and  well-drained  soil. 

The  bulbs  may  be  set  out  in  the  garden  or  border  the  last 
of  May  or  in  June,  covering  them  about  one  inch  deep.  Pre- 
paratory to  planting,  the  old,  dead  roots  at  the  base  of  the  bulb 
should  be  cut  away  and  the  pips  or  young  bulbs  about  the  sides 
removed.  After  keeping  them  till  their  scars  are  dried  over, 
these  pips  may  be  planted  5  or  G  inches  apart  in  drills. 
With  good  soil  and  cultivation  they  will  make  blooming  bulbs 
for  the  following  year. 

Before  planting  the  large  bulbs,  it  may  be  well  to  examine 
the  points,  to  determine  whether  they  are  likely  to  bloom.  The 
tuberose  blooms  but  once.  If  there  is  a  hard,  woody  piece  of 
old  stem  in  the  midst  of  the  dry  scales  at  the  apex  of  the  bulb, 
it  has  bloomed,  and  is  of  no  value  except  for  producing  pips. 
Likewise  if,  instead  of  a  solid  core,  there  is  a  brownish,  dry 
cavity  extending  from  the  tip  down  into  the  middle  of  the  bulb, 


278      PLANTING    THE    ORNAMENTAL    GROUNDS 

the  heart  has  rotted  or  dried  up,  and  the  bulb  is  worthless  as 
far  as  blooming  is  concerned. 

Bulbs  of  blooming  size  set  in  the  border  in  June  flower 
toward  the  close  of  September.  They  may  be  made  to  flower 
three  or  four  weeks  sooner  by  starting  them  early  in  some 
warm  place,  where  they  may  be  given  a  temperature  of  about 
60°  to  70°.  Prepare  the  bulbs  as  above,  and  place  them  with 
their  tips  just  above  the  surface  in  about  3  or  4-inch  pots,  in 
light,  sandy  soil.  Water  them  thoroughly,  afterwards  sparingly, 
till  the  leaves  have  made  considerable  growth.  These  plants 
may  be  turned  out  into  the  open  ground  the  last  of  May  or  in 
June,  and  will  probably  flower  in  early  September. 

Just  before  frost  dig  up  the  bulbs,  cut  off  the  tops  to  within 
2  inches  of  the  apex  of  the  bulb.  They  may  then  be  placed  in 
shallow  boxes  and  left  out  in  the  sun  and  air  for  a  week  or 
more,  to  cure.  Each  evening,  if  the  nights  are  cold,  they  should 
be  removed  to  some  room  where  the  temperature  will  not  fall 
below  40°.  When  the  outer  scales  have  become  dry,  the  re- 
maining soil  may  be  shaken  off  and  the  bulbs  stored  away  in 
shallow  boxes  for  the  winter.  They  keep  best  in  a  temperature 
of  45°  to  50°.  It  should  never  fall  below  40°. 

The  Dwarf  Pearl,  originating  in  1870,  has  long  been  popular, 
and  is  still  so  with  many.  But  others,  the  writer  included, 
have  come  to  prefer  the  old,  tall  kind,  the  flowers  of  which, 
even  if  not  so  large,  are  perfect  in  form  and  seem  to  open 
better. 

6.    Hardy   Herbaceous    Perennials 

The  delights  of  the  herbaceous  border  have  already 
been  laid  before  the  reader.  See  pages  145-147,  217- 
220,  but  details  may  be  useful. 

Perennial  herbs  are  propagated  in  various  ways, — by 
seeds,  and  by  cuttings  of  the  stems  and  roots,  but  mostly 
by  the  easy  method  of  division.  The  seed  must  often 
be  sown  as  soon  as  ripe,  as  it  is  slow  of  germination;  and 
it  often,  takes  from  2  to  4  years  to  grow  blooming  plants 
in  this  way. 

To  facilitate  making  a  selection,  the  plants  in  the  fol- 
lowing list  are  arranged  according  to  their  blooming  sea- 


PLANTS    FOR    THE    BORDER  279 

\ 
son,  beginning  with  the  earliest.     The  name  of  the  month 

indicates  when  they  usually  commence  to  bloom.  In  most 
cases  both  the  scientific*  and  popular  names  are  given; 
then  follows  the  height;  next  the  flowering  season;  and 
lastly,  the  color  of  the  flowers,  and  other  items.  The 
descriptions  are  necessarily  brief.  It  should  be  understood 
that  the  blooming  season  of  plants  is  not  a  fixed  period, 
but  varies  more  or  less  with  localities  and  seasons. 
These  dates  are  applicable  to  most  of  the  middle  and 
northern  states. 

LIST   OF    HARDY    BORDER    PLANTS 

MARCH 

Anemone  blanda  (Blue  Wind-flower).  6  in.  March-May.  Sky- 
blue  star-like  flowers.  Foliage  deeply  cut.  For  border  and 
rockwork. 

Sanguinarla  Canadensis  (Bloodroot).  6  in.  March-April.  Pure 
white.  Glaucous  foliage.  Partial  shade.  Border  or  rock- 
work. 

APRIL 

Arabis  albida  (Mountain  Rock-cress).  6  in.  April-June. 
Flowers  pure  white;  close  heads  in  profusion.  Fragrant. 
For  dry  places  and  rock-work. 

Aubrietia  deltoidea  (Purple  Rock-cress).  6  in.  April-June. 
Small  purple  flowers  in  great  profusion. 

JBellis  perennis  (Daisy).  4-6  in.  April-July.  Flowers  white, 
pink  or  red;  single  or  double.  The  double  varieties  are 
the  more  desirable.  Cover  the  plants  in  winter  with  leaves. 
May  be  raised  from  seed,  like  pansies. 

Claytonia  Virginica  (Spring  Beauty).  6  in.  April-May.  Clus- 
ters of  light  pink  flowers.  Partial  shade.  From  six  to  a 
dozen  should  be  set  together. 

*The  scientific  or  botanical  names  are  given  only  for  tha  purpose  of 
enabling  the  reader  to  find  the  plants  in  catalogues  and  books,  not  for 
the  purpose  of  expressing  any  opinion  as  to  the  proper  nomenclature 
of  the  plants. 


280       PLANTING    THE    ORNAMENTAL    GROUNDS 

Dodecatheon  Meadia  (Shooting  Star).  1  ft.  April-May.  Red- 
dish purple  flowers,  orange-yellow  eye,  in  clusters.  Cool, 
shady  location.  Plant  several  in  a  place. 

Doronicum  plantagineum  var.  excelsum  (Dog's-bane.)  20  in. 
April-June.  Large,  showy  flowers;  orange-yellow.  Bushy 
plants. 

Hepatica  acutiloba,  (Liver  Leaf).  G  in.  April-May.  Flowers 
small  but  numerous,  varying  white  and  pink.  Partial  shade. 

Iberis  sempervirens  (Hardy  Candytuft).  10  in.  April-May. 
Small  white  flowers  in  clusters;  profuse.  Large,  spreading 
evergreen  tufts. 

Lychnis  alpina  (Alpine  Lamp-flower).  0  in.  April-May. 
Flowers  star-like,  in  showy  heads;  pink.  For  border  and 
rockery. 

Myosotis  dissitiflora  (Early  Forget-me-not).  6  in.  April-June. 
Small  clusters  of  deep  sky-blue  flowers.  Tufted  habit. 

M.  palustris  var.  semperllorens  (Everblooming  F.).  10  in. 
Light  blue;  spreading  habit. 

Mertensia  Virginica  (Blue  Bells).  1  ft.  April-May.  Flowers 
blue,  changing  to  pink  ;  pendent;  tubular;  not  showy,  but 
beautiful.  Rich  soil.  .Partial  shade. 

Pceonia   Moutan    (Tree   Paeony).     See   May,  Pseonia. 

Phlox  subulata  (Moss  Pink).  6  in.  April-June.  Numerous 
deep-pink,  small  flowers;  creeping  habit;  evergreen.  Suit- 
able for  dry  places  as  a  covering  plant. 

Trilliums.  Of  several  species;  are  always  attractive  and  use- 
ful in  the  border.  (Fig.  198.)  They  are  common  in  rich 
woods  and  copses.  Dig  the  tubers  in  late  summer  and  plant 
them  directly  in  the  border.  The  large  ones  will  bloom 
the  following  spring.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  ery- 
thronium,  or  dog's-tooth  violet  or  adder 's-tongue  (Fig.  199), 
and  of  very  many  other  early  wild  flowers. 


MAY 

Ajuga  reptans.  6  in.  May-June.  Spikes  of  purple  flowers. 
Grows  well  in  shady  places ;  spreading.  A  good  cover 
plant. 

Alyssum  saxatile  var.  compactum  (Mad  wort).  1  ft.  May- 
June.  Flowers  fragrant;  in  clusters;  clear  golden-yellow. 


198.    The  wild  Trillium  grandifloruin. 


282      PLANTING    THE    ORNAMENTAL    GROUNDS 


Erythronium  Americanum,  half  size. 


Foliage  silvery.    Well-drained  soil.     One  of  the  best  yellow 

flowers. 
Aquilegia    glandulosa    and    others    (Columbine).      Fig.   200.      1 

foot.      May-June.      Deep-blue   sepals;    white   petals.      Aqui- 

legias  are  old  favorites.     (See  June.) 
Convallaria    majalis     (Lily-of -the- Valley).      8    in.      May-June. 

Racemes     of     small     white    Dells;      fragrant.      Well-known. 

Partial  shade.     (See  page  272.) 
Corydalis      nobilis      (Fumitory).       1     ft.       May-June.      Large 

clusters    of    fine    yellow    flowers.      Bushy,     upright     habit. 

Does  well  in  partial  shade. 


HARDY    BORDER    PLANTS  283 

Dicentra  spectabilis  (Bleeding-Heart).  2%  ft.  May-June. 
Well  known.  Racemes  of  heart-shaped,  deep-pink  and 
white  flowers.  Will  bear  partial  shade. 

Iris  cristata  (Crested  Iris).  6  in.  May-June.  Flowers  blue, 
fringed  with  yellow.  Leaves  sword-shaped. 

/.  Germanica  (German  Iris).  12-15  in.  May-June.  Numer- 
ous varieties  and  colors.  Large  flowers,  3-4  on  a  stem. 
Broad,  glaucous,  sword-shaped  leaves. 

Pceonia  officinalis  (Pseonia).  2  ft.  May-June.  This  is  the 
well-known  Herbaceous  Paeonia.  There  are  numerous  varie- 
ties and  hybrids.  Large  flowers,  4-6  inches  across.  Crim- 
son, White,  Pink,  Yellow,  etc.  Suitable  for  lawn  or  the 
border. 

P.  Moutan  (Tree  Paeonia).  4  ft.  April-May.  Numerous 
named  varieties.  Flowers  as  above,  excepting  yellow. 
Branched,  dense,  shrubby  habit. 

Salvia  pratense  (Meadow  Sage).  2%  ft.  May-June,  August. 
Spikes  of  deep  blue  flowers.  Branching  from  the  ground. 

Achillea  Ptarmica,  fl.  pi.,  var.  "The  Pearl."  1-2  ft.  June- 
August.  Small,  double  white  flowers,  in  few-flowered 
clusters.  Rich  soil. 

JUNE 

Anemone  Pennsylvanica  (Wind-flower).  18  in.  June-Sep- 
tember. White  flowers  on  long  stems.  Erect  habit. 
Does  well  in  the  shade. 

Anthericum  Uliastrum  (St.  Bruno's  Lily).  18  in.  June-July. 
Bell-like,  white  flowers  in  handsome  spikes. 

Aquilegia  chrysantha  (Golden-spurred  Columbine).  3  ft. 
June-August.  Golden  flowers  with  slender  spurs;  fragrant. 

A.  coerulea  (Rocky  Mountain  Columbine).  1  ft.  June-August. 
Flowers  with  white  petals  and  deep-blue  sepals,  2-3  inches 
in  diameter.  (See  May.) 

Asperula  odorata  (Woodruff).  6  in.  June-July.  Small 
white  flowers.  Herbage  fragrant  when  wilted.  Does  well  in 
shade;  spreading  habit.  Used  for  flavoring  drinks,  scent- 
ing and  protecting  garments. 

Astilbe  Japonica  (Incorrectly  called  Spiraea).  2  ft.  June- 
July.  Small  white  flowers  in  a  feathery  inflorescence. 
Compact  habit. 


200.    Common  wild  columbine.    Handsome  in  cultivcition. 


HARDY    BORDER    PLANTS 


285 


201.    Campanula  Carpathica. 


202.    A  Campanula. 


Callirhoe  involucrata  (Poppy  Mallow).  10  in.  June  to  Octo- 
ber. Large  crimson  flowers,  with  white  centers.  Trailing 
habit.  For  border  and  rockery. 

Campanula  CarpatMca  (Carpathian  Harebell).  Fig.  201.  8  in. 
June-September.  Flowers  deep  blue.  Tufted  habit.  For 
border  or  rockery.  Good  for  cutting. 

C.  glomerata  var.  Dahurica.  2  ft.  June-August.  Deep  pur- 
ple flowers  in  terminal  chisters.  Branching  from  the  ground. 
Erect  habit. 

C.  Medium  (Canterbury  Bell).  Is  an  old  favorite.  It  is  bien- 
nial, but  blooms  the  first  season  if  sown  early. 

Corydalis  lutea.  1  ft.  June-September.  Flowers  yellow,  in 
terminal  clusters.  Loose  branching  habit.  Glaucous  foliage. 


286      PLANTING    THE    ORNAMENTAL    GROUNDS 

Dianthus  plumarius  (Scotch  Pink).     10  in.    June-July.     White 

and  pink-ringed  flowers    on   slender  stems.     Densely  tufted 

habit. 
D.    superbus    (Fringed    Pink).     18    in.     July- August.     Fringed 

flowers.     Lilac  tint. 

Dictamnus  Fraxinella  (Gas  Plant).     3  ft.     June.     Flowers  pur- 
ple, showy,  fragrant;  in  Jong  spikes.     Regular  habit. 
D.—  var.  alba.    White. 
Gaillardia   aristata.     2   ft.     June-October.     Showy  orange    and 

maroon   flowers  on   long   stems.     Good   for   cutting.     Hybrid 

gaillardias  offer  quite  a  variety  of  brilliant  colors. 
ffeuchera    sanguined.      18    in.      June-September.       Flowers    in 

open  panicles;    scarlet,    on   clustered    stems    from    a    tufted 

mass  of  pretty  foliage. 
Iris  Kcempferi  (Japan  Iris).     2-3  ft.    June-July.    Large  flowers 

of  various  colors,  in  variety.    Green  sword-like  leaves.    Dense 

tufted  habit.     Prefers  a  moist  situation. 
Liatris    spicata    (Blazing   Star).     2   ft.     June-August.      Spikes 

of  fine,  small  purple  flowers.     Slender  foliage.     Unbranched, 

erect  stems.    Will  grow  in  the  poorest  soil. 
Papaver    nudicaule     (Iceland    Poppy).       1    ft.      June-October. 

Bright  yellow  flowers.     A   close,  dense   habit.     Erect,  naked 

stems.       The   varieties   Album,    white,    and     Miniaturn,    last 

deep  orange,  are  also  desirable. 
P.    orientale    (Oriental    Poppy).       2-4   ft.     June.      Flowers   G-8 

in.  across;    deep   scarlet,  with   a  purple    spot  at  the    base  of 

each   petal.     There   are   other  varieties   of   pink,  orange  and 

crimson  shades. 
Pentstemon   barbatus   var.    Torreyi.      3-4  ft.      June-September. 

Crimson  flowers  in  long  spikes.     Branching  from  the  base. 

Erect  habit. 
Phlox  paniculata    (Perennial    Phlox).     2-3   ft.     June.     A   great 

variety   of    colors  in  selfs   and   variegated   forms.      Flowers 

borne  in  large,  flat  panicles, 
JRudbeckia  maxima.     5-6  ft.    August.    Large  flowers;    cone-like 

center  and  long,  drooping  yellow  petals. 
Spircea     Filipendula    (Dropwort).      3    ft.      June-July.      White 

flowers  in  compact  clusters.     Tufted   foliage,  dark   green  and 

handsomely  cut.     Erect  stems. 
Yucca    filamentosa     (Adam's    Needle).      4-5     ft.      June-July. 


HARDY    BORDER    PLANTS  287 

Waxen  white,  pendulous,  liliaceous  flowers  in  a  great  thyrsus. 
Leaves  long,  narrow,  dark-green,  with  marginal  filaments. 
For  the  lawn,  and  for  massing  in  large  grounds. 

JULY 

Althaea  rosea  (Hollyhock).  5-8  ft.  Summer  and  fall.  Flowers 
white,  crimson,  and  yellow,  lavender  and  purple.  Stately 
plants  of  spire-like  habit ;  useful  for  the  back  of  the  border, 
or  beds  and  groups.  The  newer  double  varieties  have 
flowers  as  fine  as  a  camellia.  The  plant  is  a  biennial,  but  in 
rich,  well-drained  soil  and  with  some  winter  protection  it 
becomes  perennial.  Easily  grown  from  seed,  blooming  the 
second  year.  Seeds  may  be  sown  in  August  in  frames  and 
carried  over  winter  in  the  same  place.  The  first  year's 
bloom  is  usually  the  best. 

Anthemis  tinctoria  (Yellow  Chamomile).  12-18  in.  July-No- 
vember. Flowers  bright  yellow,  1-2  inches  in  diameter. 
Useful  for  cutting.  Dense,  bushy  habit. 

Delphinium  Chinense.  3  ft.  July-September.  Variable  colors; 
from  deep  blue  to  lavender  and  white.  Fine  for  the  border. 

1).  formosum.  4  ft.  July-September.  Fine  spikes  of  rich 
blue  flowers.  One  of  the  finest  blue  flowers  cultivated. 

Funkia  lancifolia.     (See  under  August.) 

Helianthus  multiflorus  var.  /.  pi.  4  ft.  July-September. 
Large  double  flowers,  of  a  fine  golden  color.  Erect  habit. 
A  splendid  flower. 

Lychnis  Viscaria  var.  flore  pleno.  12-15  in.  July-August. 
Double,  deep,  rose-red  flowers  in  spikes.  For  groups  and 
masses. 

Monarda  didyma.  2  ft.  July-October.  Showy  scarlet  flowers 
in  terminal  heads. 

Pentstemon  grandiflorus .  2  ft.  July- August.  Leafy  spikes  of 
showy  purple  flowers. 

P.  Icevigatus  var.  Digitalis.  3  ft.  July-August.  Pure  white 
flowers  in  spikes,  with  purple  throats. 

Platycodon  grandiflora  (Campanula  grandi flora).  3  ft.  July- 
September.  Deep  blue,  bell-shaped  flowers.  Dense,  fine, 
erect  habit. 

P.  Mariesii.  1  ft.  July-September.  Flowers  larger;  deep 
violet-blue.  Heavier  foliage. 


288       PLANTING    THE    ORNAMENTAL    GROUNDS 


AUGUST 

Funkia  subcordata  (Day  Lily).  18  in.  August-October. 
Trumpet,  lily-like,  pure  white  flowers  in  clusters,  borne  upon 
a  stalk  from  the  midst  of  a  group  of  heart-shaped  green 
leaves. 

F.  lancifolia  var.  alba-marginata.  July-August.  Lavender 
flowers.  Lance-like  leaves  margined  with  white. 

Kniphofia  aloides,  Tritoma  uvaria  (Flame  Flower).  3  ft. 
August-September.  Bright  orange- scarlet  flowers,  in  close, 
dense  spikes,  at  the  sunimit  of  several  scape-like  stems. 
Leaves  slender,  forming  a  large  tuft.  For  lawn  and  borders. 
Hardy  only  when  covered  with  litter  or  straw  in  winter. 

Lobelia  cardinalis  (Cardinal  Flower).  2%-4  ft.  August-Sep- 
tember. Flowers  intense  cardinal-red;  of  unrivaled  bril- 
liancy. Tall  spikes.  Stems  clustered;  erect.  Native. 

Pyrethrum  uliginosum  (Giant  Daisy).  3-5  ft.  July-October. 
Flowers  white,  with  golden  centers.  About  2  in.  across. 
A  stout,  upright,  bushy  plant.  Useful  for  cutting. 

Rudbeckia  triloba,  var.  "Golden  Glow."  6-7  ft.  August-Sep- 
tember. Large  double  golden  yellow  flowers  in  great  pro- 
fusion. Bushy  habit.  Cut  off  when  done  flowering.  Leaves 
appear  at  the  base  and  a  new  crop  of  flowers,  on  stems  about 
1  ft.  high  appear,  in  October. 

Solidago  rigida  (Golden-Rod).  3-5  ft.  August-October. 
Flowers  large  for  this  genus,  in  close,  short  racemes  in  a 
corymbose-paniculate  cluster.  Fine,  deep  yellow.  Erect  habit. 
One  of  the  best  of  the  Golden-Rods. 

SEPTEMBER 

Anemone  Japonica  (Japanese  Wind-flower).  2  ft.  August- 
October.  Flowers  large,  bright  red.  One  of  the  best  autumn 
flowers. 

A.  Japonica,  var.  alba.  Flowers  pure  white,  with  yellow  cen- 
ters. Fine  for  cutting. 

OCTOBER 

Chrysanthemums.  The  Chinese  and  Japanese  Chrysanthemums, 
so  well  known,  are  hardy  in  light,  well-drained  soils,  if 


CHRYSANTHEMUMS 


289 


well  protected  with  litter  or  leaves  during  the  winter,  and  in 
such  situations  are  hardy  without  protection  south  of  In- 
dianapolis. Chrysanthemums  are  gross  feeders,  and  should 
have  a  rich  soil. 

There  is  a  race  of  hardy  or  border  chrysanthemums  which  is 
again  coming  into  favor,  and  it  is  sure  to  give  much  satisfac- 
tion to  those  who  desire  flowers  in  latest  fall.  These  chrys- 
anthemums are  much  like  the  "artemisias"  of  our  mother's 
gardens,  although  improved  in  size,  form,  and  in  range  of  color. 


203.    A  protection  for  chrysanthemums. 

The  growing  of  the  florists'  chrysanthemums  is  accomplished 
only  under  glass  and  with  the  outlay  of  considerable  time  and 
the  application  of  skill;  therefore  the  subject  is  not  germane  to 
this  book.  Very  good  plants  can  be  grown  under  a  temporary 
shed  cover,  as  shown  in  Fig  203.  The  roof  need  not  necessarily 
be  of  glass.  Under  such  a  cover,  also,  potted  plants,  in  bloom, 
may  be  set  for  protection  when  the  weather  becomes  too  cold. 
Respecting  the  cultivation  of  chrysanthemums,  Bailey  writes  as 
follows:  "The  growing  of  the  plants  to  a  single  bloom  does  not 
produce  the  most  decorative  results.  It  merely  gives  large 
specimen  blooms.  I  much  prefer  to  grow  from  three  to  six 


290       PLANTING    THE    ORNAMENTAL    GROUNDS 

blooms  on  a  plant.  The  plants  may  be  flowered  in  pots,  or  in 
a  solid  soil  bench.  Very  good  small  plants  may  be  brought  to 
perfection  in  6-inch  pots,  but  the  best  results,  in  pot  plants, 
are  to  be  obtained  in  8-inch  or  10-inch  pots.  If  the  plants  are 
to  be  used  for  decoration,  they  should,  of  course,  be  grown  in 
pots,  but  the  best  results  for  cut-flowers  are  usually  obtained 
by  growing  in  the  earth.  In  any  case,  the  cuttings  are  made 
from  the  tips  of  basal  or  strong  lateral  shoots,  late  in  Febru- 
ary to  May.  If  the  plants  are  to  be  flowered  in  pots— in  which 
case  they  usually  mature  earlier— the  cuttings  may  be  started  as 
late  as  April,  or  even  June;  but  if  they  are  grown  in  the  soil 
and  large  plants  are  desired,  the  cuttings  should  be  taken  in 
February  or  March.  The  plants  which  are  flowered  in  the  soil 
are  generally  grown  in  pots  until  July.  The  grower  must 
decide  how  many  blooms  he  desires  on  a  plant,  and  then  train 
the  plant  accordingly,  bringing  up  the  different  branches  .«o 
that  they  will  all  bloom  at  the  same  time." 

There  is  a  large  special  literature  on  chrysanthemums. 
Current  discussions  may  be  found  in  the  journals  and  in  the 
Cornell  bulletins. 

HARDY    ORNAMENTAL     GRASSES 

Arundo.  Donax    (Great     Reed     Grass).      10    ft.     Tall,    straight 

stems;  deep  green.     Broad,  pointed  foliage. 
A.  Donax  var.  rariegata.      Foliage    striped   with  white.      Both 

of  these  at  the   North   profit  by  protection  with  a  mulch  of 

litter  or  manure. 
Bambusa  Metake  (Bamboo,  syn.  Arundinaria).    4-7  ft.  Shrubby, 

much  branched  stems.     Almost  evergreen, 

JErianthus   fiavennce    (Ravenna    Grass).     4-7    ft.     Forms   hand- 
some clumps  of  foliage. 
Eulalia     Japonica    var.    variegata    (Japan     Eulalia).      4-7    ft. 

Leaves  longitudinally  striped  with  white. 
E.  Japonica  var.    zebrina  (Zebra   Grass).     Leaves    cross-barred 

with  yellow  bands. 
Festuca    ovina    var.    glauca     (Blue    Fescue).       8    in.      Foliage 

glaucous,  forming  pretty  tufts.     Useful  as  an  edging. 
Panicum  virgatum  (Tall   Prairie  Grass).     4   ft.     Culms   slender 

and  wand-like.     Very  graceful. 


HARDY    CLIMBERS  291 

Phalaris    arundinacea   var.  variegata  (Striped    Ribbon    Grass). 

2%  ft.     Leaves  variegated  with  bands  of  white. 
Stipa    pinnata    (Feather    Grass).       18    in.        Graceful    slender 

plumes  of  silky  down.     Should  have  light,  rich  soil. 

7.   Hardy    Climbing    Plants. 

There  is  scarcely  a  garden  in  which  climbing  plants 
may  not  be  used  to  advantage.  Sometimes  it  may  be  to 
conceal  obtrusive  objects,  again  to  relieve  the  monotony 
of  rigid  lines.  They  may  also  be  used  to  run  over  the 
ground  and  to  conceal  its  nakedness  where  other  plants 
could  not  succeed.  The  shrubby  kinds  are  often  useful 
about  the  borders  of  clumps  of  trees  and  shrubbery,  to 
slope  the  foliage  down  to  the  grass,  and  soften  or  erase 
lines  in  the  landscape,  which  is  often  desirable  and 
necessary  for  the  most  pleasing  effects.  (See  pages 
213,  214.) 

Of  herbaceous  climbers,  the  tops  die  in  winter,  while 
those  of  woody  climbers  live  on  from  year  to  year.  Only 
a  few  of  each  class  will  be  mentioned.  All  climbers 
should  have  a  rich  soil  if  desired  to  climb  high. 

HARDY     HERBACEOUS     CLIMBERS 

Apios  tuberosa.  15-20  ft.  July-August.  Flowers  brownish 
purple;  in  large  clusters,  with  violet  fragrance.  Foliage 
similar  to  that  of  the  wistaria.  Roots  tuberous.  Plant  2  or 
3  together. 

Centrosema  Virginiana  (Butterfly  Pea).  5-6  ft.  June-Au- 
gust. Purple  and  white  pea-shaped  flowers. 

Clematis  coccinea  (Scarlet  Clematis).  5  ft.  June-September. 
Flowers  about  1  in.  long,  scarlet;  glaucous  foliage,  delicate 
and  graceful. 

C.  Davidiana.  3-4  ft.  August-September.  Porcelain-blue 
flowers  of  tubular  outline.  Dense  bushy  habit. 

C.  tubulosa.  7  ft.  August-September.  About  two  weeks 
later  than  the  last;  otherwise  similar. 


292       PLANTING    THE    ORNAMENTAL    GROUNDS 

Lathy rus     latifolius     (Perennial    Pea).       6    ft.      June-October. 

Flowers  rose-color,  on  many-flowered  stems. 
L.  latifolius    var.  albus  (White   P.  P.).      Flowers    pure    white, 

otherwise  same   as   the  last.     Useful   for  cutting.     Both   are 

fine  for  trellises,  walls,  and  for  covering. 


HARDY    WOODY    CLIMBERS     (See,  also,  page  236) 

Avtinidia  polygama.  20  ft.  or  more.  June.  White  flowers, 
with  purple  centers;  in  axillary  clusters;  fragrant.  Leaves 
entire,  heavy,  dark  and  glossy.  Berries  edible.  Foliage 
immune  from  insects  and  diseases.  For  walls,  trellises, 
screens.  Very  valuable. 

Akebia  quinata.  20  ft.  or  more.  April.  Chocolate  colored, 
sweet-scented  flowers,  in  clusters  late  in  April.  Leaves 
five-fingered,  stems  twining.  Fine  for  verandas. 

Ampelopsis  bipinnata;  properly  Cissus  stans.  15-20  feet  or 
more.  June.  Compound  cut  leaves,  dark,  of  a  bluish 
metallic  luster.  Upright,  scarcely  twining.  Fine  for  train- 
ing on  fences,  or  as  a  bush. 

A.  quinquefolia.  30-40  ft.  June.  Leaves  digitate,  on  long 
leaf-stalks,  turning  scarlet  in  the  fall.  Climbing  by  tendrils 
and  rootlets.  For  walls,  rocks,  etc. 

A.  tricuspidata,  or  Veitchii  (Japan  and  Boston  Ivy).  40  ft. 
or  more.  Leaves  varying  from  trifoliate  to  simple,  ovate  on 
the  same  plant;  on  short  stalks.  Clinging  like  the  last. 
The  most  valued  climber  for  walls.  Foliage  crimson  in  the 
fall. 

Aristolochia  Sipho  (Dutchman's  Pipe).  30  ft.  or  more.  May- 
June.  Flowers  shaped  like  a  Dutch  pipe.  Leaves  large, 
roundish,  heart  shaped.  Stems  twining.  Should  have  rich 
soil.  Arbors  and  trellises. 

Celastrus  scandens  (Bitter-Sweet).  25-40  ft.  June.  Leaves 
pointed;  oblong;  green.  Stems  twining.  The  racemed 
capsules  orange-yellow,  exposing  the  scarlet-coated  seeds, 
which  persist  in  quantity  nearly  all  winter,  making  the  plant 
an  ornamental  object.  Arbors,  trellises,  etc. 

C.  articulatus  (Japanese  Bitter-Sweet).  Fruit  hangs  long, 
but  plant  less  desirable  than  above. 


HARDY    CLIMBERS  293 

Clematis.  There  are  two  sections  of  this  cultivated  in  gardens. 
One  is  composed  of  hybrids  with  large  flowers  (Fig.  185), 
the  other  has  small  flowers.  Of  the  first  section  is 

G.  Jackmanni.  Climbs  about  15  ft.  high,  and  has  large  dark- 
blue  flowers.  A  continuous  bloomer.  There  are  a  number  of 
other  varieties,  double  and  single,  but  this  is,  perhaps,  the 
best  of  all. 

Of   the   small-flowered   section   is 

C.  paniculata.  Climbs  10-15  ft.;  blooming  from  July-Sep- 
tember. Flowers  small,  white,  fragrant,  star-shaped;  borne 
in  masses  and  in  great  profusion.  Fine  for  trellises  and  for 
covering  banks.  The  best  of  the  small-flowered  sorts. 

Lonicera  Halliana  (Hall's  Honeysuckle).  10-20  ft.  June- 
October.  Flowers  white  and  buff;  fragrant;  mainly  in 
spring  and  fall.  Leaves  small;  evergreen.  Stems  prostrate 
and.  rooting,  or  twining  and  climbing.  Trellises,  etc.,  or 
for  covering  rocks  and  bare  places.  (Fig.  179.) 

L.  flexuosa  var.  aurea  reticulata  (Golden  Variegated  Honey- 
suckle >.  12-15  ft.  January-July.  Similar  to  the  last;  but 
with  handsome  golden  appearance. 

L.  Periclymenum  var.  Belgicum  (Belgian  Honeysuckle).  6-10 
ft.  Monthly.  Flowers  in  clusters;  rosy  red,  buff  within. 
Makes  a  large,  rounded  bush. 

L.  sempervirens  (Coral  Honeysuckle).  6-15  ft.  June.  Scatter- 
ing flowers  through  the  summer.  With  no  support  makes  a 
large  rounded  bush.  For  trellises,  fences,  or  a  hedge. 

Lyciurti  Chinense  (Matrimony  Vine).  10-20  ft.  or  more.  Flow- 
ering all  summer.  Flowers  rose-pink  and  buff;  axillary, 
star-like;  succeeded  by  scarlet  berries  in  the  fall.  Stems 
prostrate,  or  climbing.  Verandas,  etc.,  dry  banks  and  rock- 
work. 

Periploca  grceca  (Silk  Vine).  30-40  ft.  June  or  July.  Pur- 
plish flowers  in  axillary  clusters.  Long,  narrow,  shining 
leaves.  Rapid  growing.  For  arbors  and  walls. 

Tecoma  radicans  (Trumpet  Creeper).  30-40  ft.  June-August. 
Flowers  large;  trumpet- shaped;  orange  scarlet;  in  clusters. 
Leaves  pinnate;  dark  green.  Climbing  by  aereal  rootlets. 
Fine  for  old  stumps,  trees  and  arbors. 

Wistaria  Chinensis.  40-50  ft.  May-August.  Flowers  pale 
blue,  in  pendulous  racemes.  Leaves  dark  green,  pinnate. 


294      PLANTING    THE    ORNAMENTAL    GROUNDS 

Stems  twining.  Fine  for  the  piazza,  the  arbor,  or  the  fence, 
but  should  not  be  allowed  to  grow  on  trees,  as  it  will  often 
cause  the  top  to  break  off. 

8.     The  Rose 

The  essentials  of  rose  culture,  after  a  thoughtful  selec- 
tion of  kinds  and  the  purchase  of  strong  plants,  are  a  sunny 
situation,  good  drainage,  a  rich,  deep  soil,  and  intelligent 
care. 

The  selection  of  kinds  should  be  made  in  reference  to 
the  locality  and  purpose  for  which  the  roses  are  wanted. 
For  bedding  roses,  those  that  are  of  free -blooming  habit, 
even  though  the  individual  flowers  are  not  large,  are  the 
ones  which  should  be  chosen.  For  permanent  beds,  the  so- 
called  hybrid  perpetual  or  remontant  roses,  blooming  prin- 
cipally in  June,  will  be  found  to  be  hardy  at  the  North. 
But  if  one  can  give  them  proper  protection  during  the  win- 
ter, then  the  Bengal,  Tea,  Bourbon,  and  Hybrid  Teas,  or 
Everblooming  roses  may  be  selected. 

In  sections  where  the  temperature  does  not  fall  below 
twenty  degrees  above  zero,  any  of  the  monthly  roses  will 
live  without  protection.  At  the  South  the  remontants  and 
other  deciduous  roses  do  not  do  as  well  as  farther  North. 
The  tender  climbers — Noisettes,  Climbing  Teas,  Bengals, 
and  others— are  excellent  for  pillars,  arbors,  and  verandas 
at  the  South ;  but  are  fit  only  for  the  conservatory  in  those 
portions  of  the  country  where  there  is  severe  fi'eezing.  For 
the  open  air  at  the  North  we  have  to  depend  for  climbing 
roses  mainly  on  the  Prairie  Climbers;  but  we  now  have 
also  the  Crimson  and  Yellow  Ramblers  (Polyanthas),  with 
their  recent  pink  and  white  varieties,  all  of  which  are  said 
to  be  perfectly  hardy.  The  trailing  Rosa  Wichuraiana  is 
also  a  useful  addition  in  the  shape  of  an  excellent  hardy 
rose  for  rocky  banks,  etc. 

While  roses  delight  in  a  sunny  situation,  our  dry  at- 
mosphere and  hot  summer  suns  are  sometimes  trying  on 


ROSES  295 

the  flowers,  as  are  severe  wintry  winds  on  the  plants. 
While,  therefore,  it  is  never  advisable  to  plant  roses  near 
large  trees,  or  where  they  will  be  over -shadowed  by 
buildings  or  surrounding  shrubbery,  some  shade  during 
the  heat  of  the  day  will  be  a  benefit.  The  best  position 
is  an  eastern  or  northern  slope,  and  where  fences  or  other 
objects  will  break  the  force  of  strong  winds,  in  those 
sections  where  such  prevail. 

The  best  soil  for  roses  is  a  deep  and  rich  clay  loam. 
If  it  is  more  or  less  of  a  fibrous  character  from  the 
presence  of  grass  roots,  as  is  the  case  with  newly  plowed 
sod  ground,  so  much  the  better.  While  such  is  desirable, 
any  ordinary  soil  will  answer,  provided  it  is  well-ma- 
nured. Cow  manure  is  strong  and  lasting,  and  has  no 
heating  effect.  It  will  cause  no  damage,  even  if  not 
rotted.  Horse -manure,  however,  should  be  well  rotted 
before  mixing  it  with  the  soil.  The  manure  may  be 
mixed  in  the  soil  at  the  rate  of  one  part  in  four.  If 
well  rotted  however,  more  will  not  do  any  damage,  as 
the  soil  can  scarcely  be  made  too  rich,  especially  for  the 
Everblooming  roses. 

In  planting,  care  must  be  taken  to  avoid  exposing  the 
roots  of  roses  to  the  drying  influence  of  the  sun  or  air.  If 
dormant  field- grown  plants  have  been  purchased,  all  broken 
and  bruised  roots  will  need  to  be  cut  off  smoothly  and 
squarely.  The  tops  also  will  need  cutting  back.  The  cut 
should  always  be  made  just  above  a  bud,  preferably  on 
the  outer  side  of  the  cane.  Strong -growing  sorts  may 
be  cut  back  one -fourth  or  one -half,  according  as  they  have 
good  or  bad  roots.  Weaker -growing  kinds,  like  most  of 
the  Everblooming  roses,  should  be  cut  back  most  severely. 
In  both  cases  it  is  well  to  remove  the  weak  growth  first. 
Plants  set  out  from  pots  will  usually  not  need  cutting 
back.  For  pruning  a  sharp  knife  is  preferable  to  prun- 
ing-shears  when  it  can  be  used,  as  the  latter  bruise  the 
bark  more  or  less. 


296      PLANTING    THE    ORNAMENTAL    GROUNDS 

Set  open -ground  plants  about  as  deep  as  they  stood  pre- 
viously, excepting  budded  or  grafted  plants,  which  should 
be  set  so  that  the  union  between  the  stock  and  graft 
will  be  from  three  to  four  inches  below  the  surface  of 
the  soil.  Plants  from  pots  may  also  be  set  an  inch 
deeper  than  they  stood  in  the  pots.  The  soil  should  be 
in  a  friable  condition.  Roses  like  to  have  the  soil  com- 
pact immediately  about  their  roots;  but  we  should  dis- 
tinguish between  planting  roses  and  setting  fence  posts. 
The  dryer  the  soil  the  more  firmly  it  may  be  pressed. 

Hardy  roses,  especially  the  strong  field -grown  plants, 
should  be  set  in  the  early  fall  if  practicable.  It  is  de- 
sirable to  get  them  out  just  as  soon  as  they  have  shed 
their  foliage.  If  not  then,  they  may  be  planted  in  the 
early  spring.  At  that  season  it  is  advisable  to  plant  them 
as  early  as  the  ground  is  dry  enough,  and  before  the  buds 
have  started  to  grow.  Dormant  pot -plants  may  also  be 
set  out  early,  but  they  should  be  perfectly  dormant.  Set- 
ting them  out  early  in  this  condition  is  preferable  to 
waiting  till  they  are  in  foliage  and  full  bloom,  as  is  so 
often  required  by  buyers.  Growing  pot -pi  ants  may  be 
planted  any  time  during  the  spring  after  danger  of  frost 
is  past,  or  even  during  the  summer,  if  they  are  watered 
and  shaded  for  a  few  days. 

North  of  the  Ohio  river  all  the  Everblooming  roses,  even 
if  they  will  endure  the  winter  unprotected,  will  be  better 
for  protection.  This  may  be  slight  southward,  but  should 
be  thorough  northward.  The  soil,  location,  and  surround- 
ings, will  often  be  a  great  help.  If  the  situation  is 
not  so  favorable,  more  protection  will  be  necessary. 
Along  the  Ohio,  a  heap  of  stable  manure,  or  light 
soil  which  does  not  become  packed  and  water -logged, 
placed  about  the  base  of  the  plants,  will  carry  over  many 
of  the  Tea  roses.  The  tops  are  killed  back;  but  the 
plants  sprout  up  from  the  base  of  the  old  branches  in  the 
spring.  Bon  Silene,  Etoile  de  Lyon,  Perle  des  Jardins, 


ROSES  297 

Mme.  Camille,  and  others  are  readily  wintered  there  in 
this  way. 

About  Chicago*  beds  have  been  successfully  protected 
by  bending  down  the  tops,  fastening  them,  and  then 
placing  over  and  among  the  plants  a  layer  of  dry  leaves 
to  the  depth  of  a1  foot.  The  leaves  must  be  dry,  and  the 
soil  also,  before  applying  them.  This  is  very  essential. 
After  the  leaves,  a  layer  of  lawn -clippings,  highest  at 
the  middle,  and  4  or  5  inches  thick,  placed  over  the 
leaves,  holds  them  in  place  and  sheds  water.  This  pro- 
tection carries  over  the  hardiest  sorts  of  Everblooming 
roses,  including  the  Teas.  The  tops  are  killed  back  when 
not  bent  down,  but  this  protection  saves  the  roots  and 
crowns;  when  bent  down,  the  tops  went  through  without 
damage.  Even  the  Climbing  rose  Gloire  de  Dijon  was 
carried  through  the  winter  of  1894-5  at  Chicago  without 
the  slightest  injury  to  the  branches. 

Strong  plants  of  the  Everblooming  roses  can  now  be  had 
at  very  reasonable  rates,  and  rather  than  go  to  the  trou- 
ble of  protecting  them  in  the  fall,  many  buy  such  as  they 
need  for  bedding  purposes  each  spring.  If  the  soil  of  the 
beds  is  well  enriched,  the  plants  make  a  rapid  and  lux- 
uriant growth,  blooming  freely  throughout  the  summer. 

Pruning  is  an  important  matter  in  rose  growing. 
Climbing  and  pillar  roses  need  only  the  weak  branches 
and  the  tips  shortened  in;  other  hardy  kinds  will  usually 
need  cutting-back  about  one-fourth  or  one-third,  according 
to  the  vigor  of  the  branches,  either  in  the  spring  or  fall. 
A  slight  cutting -back  also  after  their  June  flowering  in 
the  case  of  the  Eemontants,  will  encourage  more  flowers. 
Severe  pruning,  however,  will  only  induce  the  growth  of 
vigorous  leafy  shoots  without  flowers.  The  Everblooming 
roses  will  need  to  have  all  dead  wood  removed  at  the 
time  of  uncovering  them  in  spring.  Some  pruning 


*  American  Florist  x.,  No.  358,  p.  929  (1895) .     See  pages  58  to  67. 


298      PLANTING    THE    ORNAMENTAL    GROUNDS 

during  the  summer  is  also  useful  in  encouraging  growth 
and  flowers.  The  stronger  branches  which  have  flowered 
may  be  cut  back  one -half  or  more.  The  rule  in  trim- 
ming roses  is,  cut  back  weak-growing  kinds  severely ; 
strong  growers  moderately. 

Eoses  should  be  carefully  taken  up  every  four  or  five 
years,  tops  and  roots  cut  in,  and  then  reset,  either  in 
a  new  place  or  in  the  old,  after  enriching  the  soil  with 
a  fresh  supply  of  manure,  and  deeply  spading  it  over.  In 
Holland  roses  are  allowed  to  stand  about  eight  years. 
They  are  then  taken  out  and  their  places  filled  with 
young  plants. 

ROSES     FOR     SPECIAL    PURPOSES. 

The  following  classified  lists  embrace  some  of  the  va- 
rieties of  recognized  merit  for  various  purposes.  There 
are  many  others,  but  it  is  desirable  to  limit  the  list  to  a 
few  good  kinds.  The  intending  planter  should  consult 
recent  catalogues. 

Free -blooming  Monthly  Eoses  for  bedding. — These  are  rec- 
ommended not  for  the  individual  beauty  of  the  flower— 
although  some  are  very  fine — but  because  of  their  suitabil- 
ity for  the  purpose  indicated.  If  to  be  carried  over  winter 
in  the  open  ground,  they  need  to  be  protected  north  of 
Washington.  In  beds,  pegging  down  the  branches  will  be 
found  desirable.  Those  starred  have  been  found  hardy  in 
Southern  Indiana  without  protection,  although  they  are 
more  satisfactory  with  it.  The  name  of  the  class  to  which 
the  variety  belongs  is  indicated  by  the  initial  letter  or 
letters  of  the  class  name.  (C.,  China;  T.,  Tea;  H.  T., 
Hybrid  Tea;  B.,  Bourbon;  Pol.,  Polyantha;  N.,  Noisette; 
H.  P.,  Hybrid  Perpetual;  Pr.,  Prairie  Climber): 
Bed-  PinJc- 

Sanguinea,  C.  *Hermosa,  B. 

Agrippina,  C.  Souvenir  d'un  Ami,  T. 

Marion  Dingee,  T.        .  Pink  Soupert,  Pol. 

*  Meteor,  H.  T.  *Gen.  Tartas,  T. 


ROSES 


299 


204.    Climbing  Jules  Margottin. 


Blush- 
*Cels,  C. 

Mme.  Joseph  Schwartz,  T. 
*  Souvenir  de  la  Malmaison,  B. 
Mignonette,  Pol. 


White  — 

*Clotilde  Soupert,  Pol. 
*  Sombreuil,  B. 

Snowflake,  T. 

Pacquerette,  Pol. 


Yellow—  Yellow—  continued. 

*  Isabella  Sprunt,  T.  La   Pactole,  T. 

Mosella  (Yellow  Soupert),  Pol.       Marie  van  Houtte,  T. 


300       PLANTING    THE    ORNAMENTAL    GROUNDS 

Free -blooming  Monthly  Roses  for  summer  cutting  and 
beds. — These  are  somewhat  less  desirable  for  purely  bed- 
ding-purposes than  the  preceding;  but  they  afford  finer 
flowers  and  are  useful  for  their  fine  buds.  Those  starred 
are  hardy  in  Southern  Indiana  without  protection : 

Red—  Light  Pink  — 

*  Meteor.  *La  France,  H.  T. 
*Dinsmore,  H.  P.  Countess  de  Labarthe,  T. 

*  Pierre  Guillot,  H.  T.  *Appoline,  B. 
Papa  Gontier,  T. 

White—  Dark  Pink- 

The  Bride,  T.  *  American  Beauty,  H.  T. 

Senator  McNaughton,  T.  *  Duchess  of  Albany,  H.  T. 

*  Marie  Guillot,  T.  Mme.  C.  Testout,  H.  T. 
*Mme.  Bavay,  T.  Adam,  T. 

Kaiserin  Augusta  Victoria,  H.  T.  *  Marie  Ducher,  T. 

Yellow—  Ycllotv— continued. 

Perle  des  Jardins,  T.  Sunset,  T. 

Mme.  Welch,  T.  Marie  Van   Houtte,  T. 

Hybrid  Perpetual,  or  Remontant  Roses. — These  do  not 
flower  as  freely  as  the  groups  previously  mentioned ;  but 
the  individual  flowers  are  very  large  and  unequaled  by 
any  other  roses.  They  flower  chiefly  in  June.  Those 
named  are  among  the  finest  sorts,  and  'some  of  them  flower 
continuously : 

Rtd-  Pink  — 

Alfred  Colomb.  Mrs.  John  Laing. 

Earl  of  Dufferin.  Paul  Neyron. 

Glorie  de  Margottin.  Queen  of  Queens. 

Anna  de  Diesbach.  Magna  Charta. 

Ulrich  Brunner.  Baroness  Rothschild. 

White  - 

Margaret  Dickson.     Merveille  de  Lyon. 

Hardy  Climbing,  or  Pillar  Roses.— These  bloom  but  once 
during  the  season.  They,  however,  come  after  the  June 


ROSES  301 

roses — a  good  season — and  at  that  time  are  literally  masses 
of   flowers.      They  require   only    slight   pruning. 

White-  Pink- 

Baltimore  Belle,  Pr.  Queen  of  the  Prairies,  Pr. 

Washington,  N.  Tennessee  Belle,  Pr. 

Rosa  Wichuraiana  (trailing).          Climbing    Jules     Margotten 

(Fig.  204),  H.  P. 
Crimson—  Yellow  — 

Crimson  Rambler.  Pol.  Yellow  Rambler,  Pol. 

Tender  Climbing,  or  Pillar  Roses. — For  conservatories,  and 
the  South  as  far  north  as  Tennessee.— Those  with  an  asterisk 
are  half-hardy  north  of  the  Ohio  river,  or  about  as  hardy 
as  the  Hybrid  Teas.  These  need  no  pruning  except  a 
slight  shortening -in  of  the  shoots  and  a  thinning  out  of 
the  weak  growth. 

Vellow-  White- 

Marechal  Niel,  N.  *Aimee  Vibert,  N. 

Solfaterre,  N.  Bennett's  Seedling  (Ayrshire). 

*<Tloire  de  Dijon,  T.  White  Banksia  Banksiana). 

Yellow  Banksia  (Banksiana). 
Ked- 

*  Heine  Marie  Henriette.  T      James  Sprunt,  C. 


SECTION   IV 


THE    FRUIT    PLANTATION 

There  are  few  home  plots  so  small  that  fruits 
cannot  be  grown.  If  there  is  no  opportunity  for 
planting  the  orchard  fruits  by  themselves  at  regu- 
lar intervals,  there  are  still  boundaries  to  the  place, 
and  along  these  boundaries  and  scattered  in  the 
border  masses,  apples,  pears  and  other  fruits  may 
be  planted.  It  is  not  to  be  expected  that  fruits 
will  thrive  as  well  in  these  places  as  in  well  tilled 
orchards,  but  something  can  be  done,  and  the 
results  are  often  very  satisfactory.  Along  a  back 
fence  or  walk,  one  may  plant  a  row  or  two  of  cur- 
rants, gooseberries  or  blackberries,  or  he  may  make 
a  trellis  of  grapes.  If  there  are  no  trees  near  the 
front  or  back  of  the  border,  the  fruit  plants  may 
be  placed  close  together  in  the  row  and  the 
greatest  development  of  the  tops  may  be  allowed 
to  take  place  laterally.  If  one  has  a  back  yard 
fifty  feet  on  a  side,  there  will  be  opportunity,  in 
three  borders,  for  six  to  eight  fruit  trees,  and 
bush  fruits  between,  without  encroaching  greatly 
upon  the  lawn.  In  such  cases,  the  trees  are 
planted  just  inside  the  boundary  line. 

A  suggestion  for  the  arrangement  of  a  fruit 
(302) 


SMALL    FRCJIT-  GARDENS 

10  RODS. 


J  J 


1 
rd. 


2rds. 


2rds. 


2rds. 


rd. 


10 


I  a 

sis 


11 

!! 

CC       3Q 


303 


204.    Plan  for  a  fruit-garden  of  one  acre.    From  "Principles  of 
Fruit-growing." 

garden  of  one  acre  is  given  in  Fig.  204.  Such  a 
plan  allows  of  continuous  cultivation  in  one  di- 
rection and  facilitates  spraying,  pruning  and  har- 
vesting ;  and  the  intermediate  spaces  may  be  used 


304  THE    FRUIT    PLANTATION 

for  the  growing  of  annual  crops,  at  least  for  a 
few  years. 

For  very  small  areas,  and  for  the  growing  of 
the  finest  dessert  fruits,  dwarf  trees  may  be  grown 
of  apples  and  pears.  The  apple  is  dwarfed  when 
it  is  worked  upon  certain  small  and  slow -growing 
types  of  apple  trees,  as  the  paradise  and  doucin 
stocks.  The  doucin  is  usually  the  better,  since  it 
makes  a  larger  and  stronger  tree  than  the  other. 
The  pear  is  dwarfed  when  it  is  grown  upon  the 
root  of  quince.  Dwarf  apples  and  pears  may  be 
planted  as  close  as  ten  feet  apart  each  way,  al- 
though more  room  should  be  given  them  if  pos- 
sible. The  trees  should  be  kept  dwarf  by  vigor- 
ous annual  heading -in.  If  the  tree  is  making 
good  growth,  say  one  to  three  feet,  a  half  to  two- 
thirds  of  the  growth  may  be  taken  off  in  winter. 
A  dwarf  apple  or  pear  tree  should  be  kept  within 
a  height  of  twelve  or  fifteen  feet,  and  it  should 
not  attain  this  stature  in  less  than  ten  or  twelve 
years.  A  dwarf  apple  tree,  in  full  bearing,  should 
average  from  two  pecks  to  a  bushel  of  first  quality 
apples,  and  a  dwarf  pear  should  do  somewhat 
more  than  this. 

Buy  first-class  trees  of  reliable  dealers.  It 
rarely  pays  to  try  to  save  a  few  cents  on  a  tree, 
for  quality  is  likely  to  be  sacrificed.  At  the 
present  time  nursery  stock  is  so  cheap  that  one 
need  not  quibble  about  prices. 

Some  of  the  cardinal  points  to  be  observed  in 


SPECIFIC    ADVICE    ON    FRUIT-GROWING       305 

the  growing  of  fruit  are  detailed  in  the  following 
pages  by  Professor  Taft.  Persons  who  desire  to 
pursue  the  subject  further  should  consult  "Prin- 
ciples of  Fruit- Growing. " 

ADVICE  UPON  THE  GROWING  OF  FRUIT 

(L.  R.  TAFT) 
1.     Northern    Orchard   Fruits 

There  are  few  sections  of  the  country  where  fruits  of 
some  kind  cannot  be  grown  with  a  fair  degree  of  success. 
The  grower  should  take  special  pains  to  select  a  location 
adapted  to  the  kind  of  fruit  he  expects  to  grow,  and 
should  choose  varieties  that  are  known  to  be  valuable  in 
that  section  and  for  the  specific  purposes  desired.  With 
proper  care  in  these  respects  and  an  intelligent  handling 
of  the  trees,  satisfactory  returns  may  be  received,  while 
if  any  of  the  details  are  neglected,  failure  may  result. 

AGE  AND  SIZE  OF  TREES. — For  ordinary  planting,  it  is 
desirable  to  select  trees  two  years  from  bud  or  graft,  ex- 
cept in  case  of  the  peach,  which  should  be  one  year  old. 
Many  growers  find  strong  one-year  trees  preferable.  A 
good  size  is  about  five -eighths  of  an  inch  in  diameter  just 
above  the  collar,  and  five  feet  in  height,  and  if  they  have 
been  well  grown,  trees  of  this  size  will  give  as  good  or 
better  results  than  those  seven -eighths  of  an  inch,  or 
more,  in  diameter,  and  six  or  seven  feet  high. 

If  properly  packed,  trees  can  be  shipped  long  distances 
and  may  do  as  well  as  those  grown  in  a  home  nursery, 
but  it  will  generally  be  best  to  secure  the  trees  as  near 
home  as  possible,  provided  the  quality  of  the  trees  and 
the  price  are  satisfactory.  When  a  large  number  are  to 
be  obtained,  it  will  be  better  to  send  the  order  direct  to 
gome  reliable  nursery,  or  to  go  and  select  the  trees  in 
person,  than  to  rely  upon  tree  peddlers. 
T 


306 


THE    FRUIT    PLANTATION 


PRUNING.— Having  planted  the  trees,  they  should  be 
carefully  pruned.  -  As  a  rule,  trees  with  low  heads  are 
desirable,  and  dwarf  pears  and  peaches  should  have  the 
lower  branches  from  twelve  to  twenty -four  inches  above 
ground,  and  sweet  cherries  and  standard  pears  can  gener- 
ally be  headed  not  over  thirty  inches  from  the  ground  ; 
plums,  sour  cherries  and  apple  can  be  somewhat  higher, 


205.  Lean-to  fruit  cellar,  covered  with  earth.  It  should  be  built  of 
mason  work,  with  a  roof  of  stone  slabs,  or  of  planks  covered 
with  an  inch  or  two  of  cement.  It  should  be  provided  with  a 
ventilator  at  the  top.  Store  the  fruit  on  shelves  or  in  barrels. 

but  if  properly  handled,  when  trimmed  three  feet  from 
the  ground,  will  not  be  in  the  way  of  the  cultivation  of 
the  orchard.  For  all  except  the  peach  in  the  northern 
states,  a  pyramidal  form  will  be  desirable.  To  secure 
this,  four  or  five  side  branches  with  three  or  four  buds 
each,  should  be  allowed  to  grow  and  the  center  shoot 
should  be  cut  off  at  a  height  of  from  ten  to  twelve 
inches.  After  growth  has  started,  the  trees  should  be 
occasionally  examined  and  all  surplus  shoots  removed, 


STORING    OF    FRUITS  307 

thus  throwing  the  full  vigor  of  the  plant  into  those  re- 
maining. As  a  rule  three  or  four  shoots  upon  each 
branch  can  be  left  to  advantage.  The  following  spring 
the  shoots  should  be  cut  back  about  one -half  and  about, 
half  of  the  branches  removed.  Care  should  be  taken  to 
avoid  crotches,  and  if  any  of  the  branches  cross  others,  so 
that  they  are  likely  to  rub,  they  should  be  cut  out.  This 
cutting  back  and  trimming 
out  should  be  kept  up  for 
two  or  three  years,  and  in 
the  case  of  dwarf  pear  trees, 
regular  pruning  each  year 
should  be  continued.  Al- 
though an  occasional  head- 
ing back  will  be  of  advan- 
tage to  the  trees,  apple,  206'  1  An  outside  cellar'  ***  to 

keep  fruit  or  vegetables, 
plum  and  cherry  trees   that 

have  been   properly  pruned    while    young  will  not  require 
so  much  attention  after  they  come  into  bearing. 

GATHERING  AND  KEEPING  FRUIT. — Nearly  all  fruits 
should  be  gathered  as  soon  as  they  will  readily  part 
from  the  stems  on  which  they  are  borne.  With  many 
perishable  fruits  the  proper  time  for  gathering  will  be 
determined  largely  by  the  distance  they  are  to  be  shipped. 
With  the  exception  of  winter  varieties  of  apples  and 
pears  and  a  few  kinds  of  grapes,  it  will  be  best  to  dispose 
of  fruit  soon  after  it  is  gathered,  unless  it  is  kept  for 
family  use.  If  for  winter  use,  the  fruit  should  at  once 
be  placed  in  the  cellar  or  fruit  house  in  which  it  is  to  be 
stored,  and  there  kept  as  near  the  freezing  point  as 
possible.  There  will  be  less  danger  of  the  shriveling 
of  the  fruit  if  placed  at  once  in  closed  barrels  or  other 
tight  packages,  but  if  proper  ventilation  is  given  the  fruit 
may  be  kept  in  bins  with  little  loss.  Even  though  no 
ice  is  used,  it  will  be  possible  to  maintain  a  fairly  low 
temperature  by  opening  the  windows  at  night  when  the 


308 


THE    FRUIT    PLANTATION 


outside  atmosphere  is  colder  than  that  inside  the  build- 
ing, and  closing  them  during  the  day  as  the  outer  air 
becomes  warmer.  Fruit  should  be  handled  with  great 


207.     Diagram  illustrating  the  construction  and  principles  of  operation 
of  an  ice-cooled  store-house. 


care  at  all  times,  for  if  the  cells  become  broken  by  rough 
handling  the  keeping  qualities  will  be  greatly  injured. 
The  illustrations  (Figs.  205-207)  show  three  types  of  fruit 
storage  houses. 

THE   APPLE 

Apples  thrive  best  on  a  strong,  sandy  loam  soil,  or  a 
light  clay  loam.  While  a  soil  very  rich  in  organic  matter 
is  not  desirable,  good  results  cannot  be  obtained  unless  it 
contains  a  fair  amount  of  vegetable  matter.  A  clover  sod 


REMARKS    ON    APPLES 


309 


is    particularly    desirable    for    this    as    well    as    for   other 
fruits. 

For    a    commercial    orchard,    most    varieties    should    be 
from  thirty -five  to  forty  feet  apart  ;  but  in  the  garden  the 


209.    Wagener. 

slow-growing  and  long-lived  sorts  may  be  at  forty  feet, 
and,  half  way  between  in  both  directions,  some  of  the 
short-lived,  early  bearing  varieties  may  be  placed,  to  be 
removed  after  they  begin  to  crowd.  The  same  method 


310 


THE    FRUIT    PLANTATION 


may  be  used  for  large  orchards,  but  from  the  fact  that 
most  people  delay  the  removal  of  the  extra  trees  until 
after  they  have  become  injured  from  overcrowding,  it  is 
not  generally  advisable. 

VARIETIES  OF  APPLES.*— For  the  northern  and  eastern 
states,  the  following  varieties  will  generally  be  found 
valuable  : 

Early. — Yellow  Transparent,  Early  Harvest,  Primate, 
Early  Joe,  Bed  Astrachan,  Golden  Sweet,  Oldenburg,* 


210.     Pewankee. 

Summer  Pearmain,  Chenango,  Bough  (Sweet),  Graven- 
stein*,  Jefferis,  Porter. 

Autumn.—  Maiden  Blush,  Bailey  (sweet),  Fameuse,*  Fall 
Pippin,  Wealthy*  and  Mother. 

Winter.—  Jonathan*  (Fig.  208),  Hubbardston,*  Grimes' 
Golden,*  Tompkins'  King,*  Wagener*  (Fig.  209),  Baldwin,* 
Yellow  Bellflower,  Talman,  Northern  Spy,*  Red  Canada,* 
and  Roxbury  Russet. 

*The  varieties  marked  with  an  asterisk  (*)  are  particularly  valuable 
for  market  purposes  as  well  as  for  home  use;  the  others  are  chiefly 
desirable  for  home  use. 


APPLES  311 

For  the  South  and  Southwest  the  varieties  named  in  the 
following  list  are  of  value  : 

Early.— Bed  June,  Yellow  Transparent,  Red  Astrakhan, 
Summer  Queen,  Benoni,  Oldenburg,  Gravenstein. 

Autumn. — Haas,  Late  Strawberry,  Maiden  Blush,  Oconee, 
Rarnbo,  Peck's  Pleasant,  Rome  Beauty,*  Carter's  Blue. 

Winter.— Paragon,*  Shockley,  Smith's  Cider,  Hubbard- 
ston,  Hoover,  Horse,  Grimes'  Golden,  Buckingham,  Jona- 
than* (Fig.  208),  Winesap,  Kinnaird,  Ben  Davis,*  York 
Imperial,  Romanite,  Rail's  Genet,  Limber  Twig. 

In  the  Northwest  only  such  varieties  as  are  extremely 
hardy  will  be  satisfactory,  and  among  those  likely  to  suc- 
ceed we  may  mention: 

Early. — Yellow  Transparent,  Tetofski. 

Autumn.—  Oldenburg,*  Fameuse,  Longfield,  Wealthy, 
MeMahan.* 

Winter — Wolf  River,*  Hibernal,  Northwestern  Greening, 
Pewaukee  (Fig.  210),  Switzer,  Golden  Russet. 

INSECTS  AND  DISEASES  OF  THE  APPLE.— Among  the  in- 
sects most  commonly  found  upon  the  apple-tree  are  the 
codlin-moth,  canker-worm  and  tent -caterpillar.  The 
codlin-moth  lays  its  egg  upon  the  fruit  soon  after  the 
blossoms  fall,  and  the  larvae,  on  hatching,  eat  their  way 
inside.  A  thorough  spraying  of  the  trees  with  arsenites 
(page  98)  within  a  week  after  the  blossoms  fall  will  do 
much  toward  destroying  them;  but  a  second  application 
in  about  three  weeks,  Vill  be  desirable.  The  canker-worm 
(Fig.  92)  and  tent-caterpillars  feed  upon  the  leaves,  and 
can  also  be  destroyed  by  means  of  arsenites.  To  be 
effectual  against  the  former,  however,  the  applications 
must  be  made  soon  after  they  hatch,  and  in  a  very  thor- 
ough manner. 

Borers  frequently  do  much  injury  to  the  trunks  of  trees, 
but  if  the  trees  are  kept  well  cultivated  and  in  a  thrifty  grow- 
ing condition,  the  injury  will  be  greatly  reduced.  It  will  be 
well,  however,  to  wash  the  trunks  oH  the  trees  and  larger 


312  THE    FRUIT    PLANTATION 

branches  with  soft  soap,  thinned  with  water  so  that  it  can 
be  applied  with  a  brush  or  broom,  during  the  spring.  The 
addition  of  an  ounce  of  Paris  green  in  each  five  gallons  of 
the  wash  will  be  of  value. 

The  most  troublesome  disease  of   the  apple  is  the  apple - 
scab,  which  disfigures  the  fruit  as  well  as  lessens  its  size. 


211.    Blighted  and  broken  foliage  and  injured  fruit,  the  work  of 
apple-scab. 

It  also  often  does  much  harm  to  the  foliage,  and  thus  checks 
the  growth  of  the  trees  (Fig.  211).  The  Baldwin,  Fameuse, 
Northern  Spy  and  Bed  Canada  are  particularly  subject  to 
this  disease,  and  it  is  much  more  troublesome  in  moist 
seasons  than  when  the  weather  is  dry.  The  use  of  fungi- 
cides will  do  much  to  lessen  the  injury  from  this  disease. 
To  be  effectual,  however,  they  must  be  applied  in  a  thorough 
manner,  and  as  a  preventive  rather  than  a  cure.  The 
trees  should  be  sprayed  with  a  solution  of  copper  sul- 
phate at  the  rate  of  one  pound  to  fifteen  gallons  of  water, 
before  the  buds  open  in  the  spring,  and  as  soon  as  the 
blossoms  have  fallen,  Bordeaux  mixture  (page  99)  should 
be  applied.  In  regions  where  the  disease  is  troublesome 


APPLE — PEAR  313 

and  with  varieties  subject  to  its  attack,  the  thorough 
spraying  of  the  trees,  after  the  blossoms  have  formed  and 
just  before  they  open,  will  often  result  in  the  saving  of 
the  crop.  The  frequency  of  the  later  applications  will 
depend  upon  the  prevalence  of  the  disease ;  but  if  there 
is  likely  to  be  trouble,  the  use  of  Bordeaux  mixture  upon 
winter  varieties  every  three  weeks  up  to  the  middle  of 
July  or  first  of  August  will  be  found  profitable.  The 
earlier  applications  can  be  made  in  connection  with  the 
arsenites,  and  will  aid  in  preventing  injury  to  the  foliage 
by  free  arsenic. 

THE    PEAR 

Pears  require  a  rather  stiff  soil,  and  do  best  in  a  moder- 
ately heavy  clay  loam.  While  it  should  be  retentive  of 
moisture,  it  must  be  well  drained.  Dwarf  pear-trees 
should  have  a  rich,  deep,  loamy  soil,  and  do  best  if  it  is 
of  an  alluvial  nature.  Standard  pears  should  be  placed 
from  twenty  to  twenty -five  feet  each  way,  and  dwarfs 
from  twelve  to  fifteen.  Dwarf  trees  are  often  more  desir- 
able than  standard,  as  they  are  generally  earlier  bearers 
and  require  but  one -half  as  much  room  as  standard  trees. 
To  be  grown  successfully,  however,  they  should  be. se- 
verely cut  back  each  year,  and  all  surplus  shoots  re- 
moved. As  they  have  a  comparatively  small  root  system, 
they  should  be  well  supplied  with  plant-food,  and  be  even 
more  thoroughly  cultivated  than  standard  trees.  While 
there  is  danger  from  using  an  excess  of  manure,  the  land 
should  be  kept  well  enriched  with  decomposed  stable  ma- 
nure, wood  ashes  and  ground  bone. 

VARIETIES  OF  THE  PEAR. — As  a  selection  to  supply  a 
succession  of  varieties  throughout  the  season,  the  follow- 
ing list  is  recommended: 

Early. — Summer  Doyenne,  Bloodgood,  Clapp. 

Autumn, — Bartlett,    Boussock,   Flemish   Beauty,   Buffum, 


314 


THE    FRUIT    PLANTATION 


Howell,  Seckel  (Fig.  212),  Louise  Bonne,  Duchess 
(d'Angouleme)  (Fig.  213). 

Winter.— Anjou,  Sheldon,  Clairgeau,  Lawrence,  Kieffer 
(Figs.  214,  215),  Winter  Nelis,  and  Easter  Beurre. 

For  ordinary  market  purposes,  the  following  have  been 
proved  valuable  :  Bartlett,  Howell,  Anjou,  Clairgeau,  and 


Lawrence.  In  the  central  and  southern  states,  Kieffer 
is  grown  successfully,  and  in  the  extreme  South  LeConte 
is  largely  grown.  For  home  use,  the  Kieffer  is  not  to  be 
recommended  in  the  North,  because  of  its  poor  quality  and 
smaller  size. 

For  growing  as  dwarfs,   Duchess  (d'Angouleme),    Louise 


213.    Duchess  d'Angouleme. 


214.     Kieffer  pear. 


THE    FRUIT    PLANTATION 

Bonne,  Anjou,  Clairgeau  and  Lawrence  are  most  popular, 
but  many  other  varieties  thrive  on  the  quince. 

INSECTS  AND  DISEASES  OP  THE  PEAR.— In  addition  to  the 
attack  of  the  cherry-tree  slug,  codlin-moth,  and  various 
insects  common  to  other  fruits,  the  foliage  of  the  pear  is 
attacked  by  a  leaf -mite  (Phytoptus)  and  the  pear  tree 
psylla,  although  neither  are  commonly  troublesome  over  a 
wide  range  of  country.  The  latter  yields  readily  to  a 
thorough  application  of  kerosene  emulsion,  applied  just 
before  the  leaves  open  in  the  spring. 

The  most  common  and  destructive   disease  of   the  pear 
is   fire -blight.     This    is    of    a    bacterial    nature,  and    may 
appear  upon  the    trunk,  branches,  or 
foliage,    and    if     allowed   to    spread, 
will  generally  kill  the  trees.     A  form 
known     as    twig-blight    attacks     the 
branches,  but  seldom  spreads  to   the 
trunk.     It  is  least  troublesome  upon 
slow-growing     varieties,     and    where 
there  is   not   an  excess  of    organic 
matter  in  the  soil.     If  an  excessive 
growth  can  be  avoided,  the  danger 
will  be  reduced.      The  blight  mani- 
fests itself  upon  the   growing  shoots 
by  the    discoloring    of   the   bark  and 
underlying  wood,  and   by  the  brown- 
ish-black color  of  the  foliage.     There 
21;>.    Kieffer. 

is  no  known  remedy,  but  as  soon  as 

the  disease  shows  itself  the  affected  portions  should  be 
removed,  taking  care  to  cut  several  inches  below  where 
any  signs  of  the  disease  appears. 

The  foliage  of  the  pear  is  also  attacked  by  a  fungous 
disease  known  as  leaf-blight,  which  causes  the  leaves 
to  drop  prematurely;  the  same  disease  also  affects  the 
fruit,  causing  it  to  crack  and  become  misshapen.  The 
use  of  Bordeaux  mixture,  as  recommended  for  apple- 


PEAR — PLUM  317 

scab,  will  be  found  to  be  a  sure  remedy  for  this  trouble. 
This  disease  is  distinguished  from  the  true  pear-blight 
or  fire -blight  by  definite  spots  or  blotches  on  the  leaves  and 
the  tendency  of  the  leaves  to  drop  prematurely. 

THE  PLUM 

While  clay  is  not  as  necessary  for  plum  as  for  pear 
trees,  they  succeed  well  on  moderately  heavy  clay  soils, 
but  seem  equally  adapted  to  strong,  sandy  loams.  Trees 
grown  on  myrobalan  stocks  are  best  for  heavy  soils,  but 
if  it  becomes  necessary  to  place  them  on  a  light  soil, 
those  grown  on  peach  roots  will  give  best  results. 

The  distance  at  which  plums  should  be  placed  varies 
from  sixteen  to  twenty  feet  each  way,  according  to  the 
size  of  the  trees  and  the  nature  of  the  soil ;  the  strong- 
growing  sorts  upon  heavy  soils  require  the  greater,  while 
weak  varieties  on  lighter  soils  will  succeed  at  the  lesser 
distance. 

VARIETIES  OF  THE  PLUM.  — The  following  varieties 
of  European  origin  will  be  found  desirable  for  growing 
in  the  northern  and  eastern  states:  Bradshaw,  Imperial 
Gage,  Lombard,  McLaughlin,  Pond,  Jefferson,  Fellenberg, 
Shropshire,  Coe  Golden  Drop,  Bavay  or  Reine  Claude, 
Grand  Duke,  Monarch,  and  Black  Diamond. 

Several  of  the  Japanese  varieties  are  also  well  adapted 
to  growing  in  these  sections,  as  well  as  in  the  states 
farther  south.  The  trees  are  generally  hardy,  but  they 
bloom  early,  and  are  apt  to  be  injured  by  late  frosts  in 
some  localities.  Among  the  better  kinds  are  the  Red 
June,  Abundance,  Chabot,  Burbank,  and  Satsuma. 

Few  of  the  above  sorts  are  hardy  in  the  Northwest,  and 
growers  there  have  to  rely  upon  varieties  of  Prunus 
Americana  origin.  Among  these  are:  Forest  Garden, 
De  Soto,  Rollingstone,  Weaver,  Quaker,  and  Hawkeye. 
Farther  south  still  other  classes  of  plums  have  beeu 


318  THE     FRUIT     PLANTATION 

introduced,  among  them  being  Wild  Goose,  Clinton, 
Moreman,  Miner,  and  Golden  Beauty.  And  still  farther 
south,  Transparent,  Paris  Belle,  Newman,  Lone  Star,  and 
El  Paso  are  grown. 

INSECTS  AND  DISEASES  OF  THE  PLUM.— Plum  trees  are 
attacked  by  a  number  of  dangerous  diseases  and  insects, 
and  to  be  grown  successfully,  these  require  careful  atten- 
tion. The  most  troublesome  disease  is  the  "  black-knot", 
which  causes  swellings  upon  the  trunks  and  branches. 
If  allowed  to  spread  it  will  quickly  be  fatal  to  the 
orchard.  All  diseased  branches  should  at  once  be  re- 
moved, cutting  a  foot  or  so  below  the  knot.  The  spread 
of  the  disease  can,  to  a  large  extent,  be  prevented  by 
spraying  the  trees  occasionally  during  the  season  with 
Bordeaux  mixture,  but  to  be  effectual,  the  spraying  and 
cutting  out  of  the  knots  must  be  done  promptly  upon  the 
first  appearance  of  the  disease. 

Plum  trees  are  also  much  injured  by  the  "  shot -hole 
fungus",  which  causes  the  leaves  to  drop,  but  it  also  can 
be  prevented  by  the  use  of  fungicides. 

Brown -rot  of  the  fruit  is  also  very  troublesome  in 
warm,  moist  seasons;  although  less  effective  than  with 
other  diseases,  the  fungicides  will  largely  prevent  its 
spread. 

The  fruit  is  also  frequently  destroyed  by  the  plum  cur- 
culio,  an  insect  which  deposits  its  egg  beneath  the  skin  of 
the  fruit.  The  larva,  on  hatching,  eats  its  way  in  to  the 
pit,  causing  the  fruit  to  drop  from  the  tree.  Thorough 
and  persistent  spraying  with  arsenites  will  sometimes  save 
the  crop,  but  many  growers  prefer  to  jar  the  trees  early 
in  the  morning,  and  catch  the  curculios  upon  sheets  spread 
for  the  purpose. 

Plum  trees,  as  well  as  most  of  our  other  fruits,  are  also 
subject  to  the  attack  of  the  San  Jos6  scale  and  other  scale 
insects.  If  very  numerous,  they  will  greatly  injure  and 
even  destroy  the  trees.  The  San  Jose"  scale,  in  particular, 


SAN  JOSE  SCALE— PEACH          319 

is  very  injurious,  and  if  found  in  large  numbers  upon  a 
tree,  it  should  at  once  be  destroyed  ;  but  if  only  a  few 
are  present,  they  may  be  killed  by  thoroughly  spraying 
the  trees  in  winter  with  a  solution  of  whale-oil  soap  made 
at  the  rate  of  one  and  one -half  pounds  to  a  gallon  of 
water.  Even  in  summer,  thorough  spraying  with  kerosene 
and  water  will  destroy  the  pest. 


THE    PEACH 

Although  peach  trees  are  hardy,  except  in  the  more 
northern  states,  there  are  only  comparatively  a  few  sec- 
tions in  which  they  can  be  grown  successfully,  as  the 
flower  buds  are  destroyed  if  the  mercury  reaches  twenty 
degrees  below  zero,  and  frequently  at  zero  or  above,  if  the 
buds  have  swollen  during  warm  periods  in  the  winter  and 
early  spring.  Peaches  are  generally  grown  upon  sandy 
loam  soils,  but  do  well  upon  light  clays  if  they  are 
naturally  well  drained.  Particular  attention  should  be 
paid  to  having  them  in  some  elevated  spot  in  order  that 
they  may  have  perfect  air  drainage,  unless  they  are  in 
sections  where  the  natural  surroundings  prevent  extremes 
of  temperature. 

Although  most  growers  find  it  advisable  to  plant  the 
trees  from  eighteen  to  twenty  feet  each  way,  some  prefer 
to  grow  them  as  close  as  from  twelve  to  fifteen  feet,  and 
do  this  by  severely  heading-back  the  trees.  Trees  one 
year  from  bud  should  be  used,  and  should  be  cut  back  to 
a  whip,  unless  there  are  side  shoots  where  the  head  is  to 
be  formed,  in  which  case  three  or  four  of  them  should  be 
cut  back  to  two  buds  each,  and  all  others,  as  well  as  the 
center  shoot,  removed.  In  most  sections  it  will  be  pref- 
erable to  have  the  lower  branches  not  more  than  eighteen 
to  twenty-four  inches  from  the  ground,  and  in  the  south- 
ern states,  twelve  inches  will  be  sufficient.  Until  the 
trees  come  into  bearing,  the  shoots  should  be  cut  back 


216.     Bunch  of  yellows  shoots. 


PEACH 


321 


from  one -half  to  two -thirds  each  year,  and  many  of  the 
weaker  ones  removed.  At  the  North  it  is  best  to  grow 
them  in  an  open,  vase -shaped  form,  that  the  sun  may 
enter  and  ripen  the  fruit,  while  at  the  South  the  pyra- 
midal form  should  be  chosen.  After  the  trees  come  into 
bearing  they  will  need  less  pruning,  but  a  little  heading  - 
back  and  thinning  out  will  be  desirable  each  year.  In 
case  the  crop  is  lost,  it  will  be  well  to  occasionally  cut 
back  branches  to  the  main  arms,  and  thus  form  a  new  head. 

VARIETIES  OF  THE  PEACH.— For  home 
use  it  is  advisable  to  provide  varieties 
that  will  ripen  in  succession,  but  for 
market  purposes,  in  most  sections, 
the  medium  and  late  kinds  should 
be  most  extensively  planted.  Al- 
though there  are  many  varieties  that 
have  a  local  reputation,  but  are  not 
commonly  found  in  the  nurseries, 
the  following  kinds  are  well  known, 
and  can  be  generally  grown  with 
success:  Alexander,  Hale's  Early, 
Early  Rivers,  St.  John,  Crawford 
Early  and  Late,  Oldmixon,  Stump 
the  World,  Elberta,  Crosby,  Gold 
Drop,  Smock,  and  Sal  way.  Among 
the  new  kinds  less  commonly  known 
are:  Triumph,  Lewis,  Champion, 
Sneed,  Greensboro,  and  Kalamazoo. 

INSECTS  AND  DISEASES  OF  THE 
PEACH. — In  some  sections  the  peach 
industry  has  been  entirely  destroyed 
by  "yellows."  While  its  exact  nature 
is  not  known,  it  is  evidently  conta- 
gious, and  infected  trees  should  be 
removed  at  its  first  appearance.  It 
shows  in  red  spots  upon  the  sxirface,  217.  Leaf-curl. 


322  THE    FRUIT    PLANTATION 

and  streaks  running  from  the  pit  to  the  outside  of  the 
fruit,  and  in  the  development  of  short,  weak  shoots  late 
in  the  fall  from  buds  that  should  remain  dormant  until 
spring.  The  leaves  are  small  and  light  yellowish  green 
in  color.  The  following  year  tufts  of  wiry  branches  are 
developed  in  the  crotches  of  the  trees  and  often  from  the 
large  branches  (Fig.  216),  and  the  tree  generally  dies  dur- 
ing the  second  or  third  year. 

Curl-leaf  (Fig.  217)  is  also  troublesome  in  cold,  wet 
springs,  causing  a  thickening  and  folding  of  the  leaves, 
and  often  resulting  in  the  defoliation  of  the  trees.  It  is 
a  fungous  disease,  but  is  seldom  troublesome  when  the 
weather  in  May  and  June  is  warm  and  dry.  If  the  attack 
is  severe,  most,  if  not  all  of  the  fruit,  will  drop  from  the 
trees.  Generally,  the  tree  recuperates,  and  the  disease 
is  seldom  serious  in  two  succeeding  years.  Its  attack  can 
be  prevented  if  the  trees  are  thoroughly  sprayed  with 
Bordeaux  mixture  before  growth  starts,  again  after  the 
blossoms  have  fallen,  and  a  third  time  in  about  ten  days. 
The  material  should  be  made  of  full  strength,  and  double 
the  amount  of  lime  commonly  used  would  be  desirable, 
and  to  be  effectual  it  should  be  thoroughly  applied  to  all 
parts  of  the  trees  before  the  disease  has  attacked  the 
leaves.  Peach  trees  are  often  injured  by  spraying. 

The  peach  is  also  subject  to  the  attack  of  brown -rot,  cur- 
culio  (page  318),  and  shot-hole  fungus.  The  borer  of  the 
peach  is  often  very  destructive,  and  the  trees  should  be  ex- 
amined in  June,  and  again  in  October,  for  its  presence. 
Scrubbing  the  trunks  of  the  trees  about  the  middle  of 
June  in  the  northern  states,  and  one  or  two  months  earlier 
in  the  South,  with  the  wash  recommended  for  the  apple 
tree  borer,  may  lessen  the  danger  of  their  attack. 

The  black  peach  aphis  is  very  numerous  in  some  sec- 
tions, and  will  quickly  destroy  young  trees.  They  suck 
the  sap  from  the  roots  of  the  trees,  but  appear  above 
ground  during  the  summer.  They  can  be  destroyed  on 


PEACH— APRICOT— CHERRY  323 

the  foliage  by  spraying  with  strong  tobacco  water,  while 
below  ground  the  best  remedy  will  be  to  scrape  away  the 
surface  soil  and  spread  about  the  tree  from  a  half  bushel 
to  a  bushel  of  unleached  wood  ashes,  or  tobacco  stems. 

The  roots  of  peach  trees  are  often  covered  with  swell- 
ings known  as  crown  or  root -galls.  Such  trees  should 
never  be  planted,  for  although  they  may  grow,  they  will 
never  be  of  value.  Similar  galls  also  appear  on  the 
plum,  pear,  apple,  raspberry,  and  other  fruits. 


APRICOTS  AND   NECTARINES 

These  fruits  are  not  commonly  grown,  as  ordinarily  the 
trees  are  short-lived  and  lacking  in  productiveness.  They 
require  the  same  care  as  the  peach,  are  as  hardy,  are 
attacked  by  the  same  insects,  and  they  are  as  easy  to 
grow.  A  nectarine  is  only  a  peach  with  a  smooth  skin. 
Apricots  thrive  on  a  rathe*  strong  soil.  Early  Golden, 
Moorpark,  Royal,  Roman,  Montgamet  and  Harris  are  among 
the  best  varieties  of  apricots,  and  Boston  and  Pitmaston 
Orange  are  the  leading  sorts  of  nectarines. 


THE   CHERRY 

While  cherries  succeed  upon  a  variety  of  soils,  they  do 
best  and  live  longest  upon  a  moderately  light  soil,  pro- 
vided it  contains  an  abundance  of  plant -food.  The  pres- 
ence of  stagnant  water  in  the  soil  will  be  fatal  to  them. 
For  the  ordinary  planter,  the  sour  kinds  will  do  best  and 
prove  most  productive,  as,  although  ordinarily  hardy,  sweet 
cherry  trees  are  likely  to  make  a  late  growth  in  the  au- 
tumn, and  the  action  of  frost  upon  the  trunks  will  result 
in  the  cracking  of  the  bark,  and  the  life  of  the  tree  will 
thus  be  shortened.  Trees  grown  on  Mahal eb  stocks  will 
generally  be  found  most  hardy,  particularly  on  heavy 
soils.  The  sour  varieties  may  be  placed  at  from  eighteen 


324  THE    FRUIT    PLANTATION 

to  twenty  feet  each  way,  but  in  sections  where  the  sweet 
cherries  reach  their  full  development,  twenty-five  or  thirty 
feet  will  be  none  too  much  for  them. 

After  the  head  has  once  been  formed,  sour  cherries  will 
require  little  pruning;  but  for  a  number  of  years  it  will 
be  well  to  head  back  the  upright -growing  sweet  cherries. 
The  injury  from  the  winter  spoken  of  above,  as  injuring 
the  sweet  kinds,  can  be  greatly  reduced  if  the  trunks  are 
shortened  so  that  the  branches  will  come  out  not  more 
than  one  and  one -half  feet  above  the  ground. 

VARIETIES  OF  THE  CHERRY.— Of  the  sour  varieties,  May 
Duke,  Early  Richmond,  Montmorency,  Eeine  Hortense, 
Late  Kentish  and  English  Morello  are  the  most  valuable. 
The  following  sweet  varieties  are  of  value  where  they  suc- 
ceed: Eockport,  Yellow  Spanish,  Elton,  Gov.  Wood,  Coe 
Transparent,  Windsor,  Black  Tartarian,  and  Downer. 

INSECTS  AND  DISEASES  OF  THE  CHERRY. — Cherry  trees  are 
often  nearly  defoliated  by  a  s%iall,  slimy  larva  known  as- 
the  cherry-tree  slug.  It  eats  off  the  green  portions  of 
the  leaf,  giving  them  an  appearance  as  if  burned  with 
fire.  They  can  be  readily  destroyed  by  throwing  dry  road 
dust,  wood  ashes,  or  air- slaked  lime  over  the  trees,  but  if 
the  trees  are  large  and  numerous,  it  will  be  easier  to 
spray  them  with  Paris  green.  The  so-called  cherry  worms 
are  the  larva. of  the  curculio,  which  also  attacks  the  plum 
and  the  peach.  (See  Plum.) 

Although  the  foliage  of  young  trees  is  frequently 
attacked  with  powdery  mildew,  it  seldom  does  much  harm, 
and  the  only  disease  to  be  much  feared  is  brown -rot, 
mentioned  as  attacking  the  plum  and  peach.  If  the 
weather  is  warm  and  moist  at'  the  time  the  trees  are  in 
blossom,  or  just  as  the  fruit  is  ripening,  the  injury 
inflicted  will  be  quite  severe,  and  the  fruit  must  be 
quickly  picked.  The  disease  is  most  serious  on  white  va- 
rieties of  the  sweet  cherry  type.  (Consult  bulletins  of 
Cornell  and  Delaware  Experiment  Stations.) 


QUINCE — ORANGE  325 


THE     QUINCE 

Although  not  largely  grown,  quinces  generally  find  a 
ready  sale,  and  are  desirable  for  home  use.  The  trees 
are  usually  planted  about  twelve  feet  each  way,  and  may 
be  trained  either  in  a  shrub  or  tree  form,  but  it  will 
generally  be  best  to  grow  them  with  a  short  trunk.  They 
succeed  best  on  a  deep,  moist  and  rich  alluvial  soil,  and 
require  the  same  care  as  the  pear.  The  insects  and  dis- 
eases by  which  they  are  attacked  are  also  the  same  as 
upon  that  fruit.  The  Orange  is  the  most  common  va- 
iety,  but  Champion,  Meech  and  Rea  are  sometimes  grown. 


2.     Sub-Tropical  Fruits 

Many  sections  in  California,  Florida  and  Louisiana  are 
adapted  to  the  growing  of  such  fruits  as  oranges,  lemons, 
figs  and  other  tender  fruits  that  can  only  be  grown  under 
glass  in  the  northern  states.  In  a  general  way  they  are 
planted  and  cultivated  in  about  the  same  manner  as  other 
fruits. 

THE    ORANGE 

Oranges  are  grown  extensively  in  many  parts  of  Cali- 
fornia, but  in  the  most  favored  sections  there  is  occa- 
sionally some  injury  from  frost  to  the  trees  or  fruit,  while 
the  recent  destructive  freeze  in  Florida  caused  great 
damage.  The  soil  preferred  for  oranges  in  California  is  a 
rich,  deep  alluvium,  avoiding  hard-pan  or  adobe  subsoils. 
Stagnant  water  in  the  subsoil  is  a  fatal  defect.  Although 
they  can  be  grown  near  the  ocean  at  a  lower  level,  an 
elevation  of  six  hundred  to  twelve  hundred  feet  is  gen- 
erally desirable.  While  Southern  California  is  particularly 
adapted  to  orange  culture,  the  fruit  is  successfully  raised 
along  the  foot-hills  of  the  San  Joaquin  and  Sacramento 


326 


THE    FRUIT    PLANTATION 


valleys  and  in  other  parts  of  the  state.  In  Florida,  pine 
lands  with  a  clay  subsoil  are  generally  preferred  for 
oranges,  but  if  properly  handled  good  results  can  be 
obtained  from  hammock  land.  As  elevated  spots  cannot 
be  secured,  a  timber  belt  surrounding  the  orchard  or 
along  the  north  and  west  sides  is  desirable. 


218.    Oonshiu  orange,  one  of  the  Tangerine  type. 

The  distance  for  the  large -growing  kinds  in  the  orchard 
is  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  feet  each  way,  but  the  half- 
dwarf  kinds  such  as  Bahia  or  Washington  Navel  may  be 
as  close  as  twenty  feet  each  way,  although  twenty -five 
feet  will  be  desirable.  If  the  roots  are  sacked,  the  trees 
should  be  placed  in  the  hole  without  removing  the  cover- 
ing and  the  soil  should  then  be  packed  about  them,  but 
if  they  are  puddled,  a  mound  should  be  made  in  the  bot- 
tom of  the  hole.  In  the  center  an  opening  should  be 
made  into  which  the  tap-root  can  be  inserted.  After  the 


ORANGES  327 

soil  has  been  firmly  packed  about  it,  the  other  roots 
should  be  spread  out  and  the  hole  filled  with  good  soil, 
packing  it  carefully.  Care  should  be  taken  that  the  roots 
are  not  exposed  in  handling  the  trees,  and  if  the  weather 
is  hot  and  dry  the  tops  should  be  shaded.  Water  may 
often  be  used  with  good  results  in  settling  the  soil  about 
the  roots. 

PRUNING    THE    ORANGE.— When    transplanted,   the    tops 
should  be  cut  back  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  roots 


219.    Kawachi,  a  Japanese-American  type  of  orange. 


lost  in  digging  the  trees.  The  head  is  usually  started 
with  -the  branches  about  two  feet  from  the  ground.  Each 
year  while  the  trees  are  small,  the  strong  shoots  should 
be  cut  back  to  preserve  a  symmetrical  form  and  the  weak 
and  surplus  shoots  should  be  removed. 

CULTIVATION  OF  ORANGE  ORCHARDS.— The  cultivation  of 
orange  orchards  should  be  the  same  as  recommended  for 
other  fruits,  except  that  as  they  grow  in  hot,  dry  climates, 


328  THE    FRUIT    PLANTATION 

it  should  be  even  more  thorough,  that  the  evaporation  of 
moisture  from  the  soil  may  be  reduced  to  a  minimum. 
California  growers  have  found  that  by  frequent  shallow 
cultivation  they  can  reduce  the  amount  of  water  that 
must  be  applied  by  irrigation,  and  that  frequent  tillage 
and  a  little  water  will  give  better  results  than  little  or 
no  cultivation  and  a  large  amount  of  water.  The  amount 
of  water  required  will  also  depend  on  the  season  and  the 
character  of  the  soil.  Thus  on  strong  soils  and  after  a 
heavy  rainfall,  no  irrigation  will  be  required,  while  sandy 
soils  will  need  irrigating  as  often  as  once  in  three  or  four 
weeks  from  May  to  October.  As  a  general  rule,  two  or 
three  irrigations  in  a  season  will  be  ample.  When  used 
at  all,  water  should  be  applied  in  sufficient  quantities  to 
wet  down  to  the  roots  of  the  trees.  Frequent  scanty 
waterings  may  do  much  harm.  The  water  is  usually  ap- 
plied in  furrows,  and  for  young  trees  there  should  be  one 
on  either  side  of  each  row,  but  as  the  roots  extend  the 
number  should  be  increased,  until  when  five  or  six  years 
old  the  entire  orchard  should  be  irrigated  from  furrows 
four  or  five  feet  apart.  In  Florida,  irrigation  is  not  neces- 
sary. Excellent  oranges  are  also  grown  in  the  Delta 
country  of  the  Mississippi,  below  New  Orleans,  where  they 
ripen  early. 

VARIETIES  OF  THE  ORANGE.— Among  the  best  varieties 
are:  Bahia,  commonly  known  as  Washington  Navel,  Mal- 
tese Blood,  Mediterranean  Sweet,  Paper  Rind,  St.  Michael, 
Valencia,  and  Beach  No.  1.  Homosassa,  Magnum  Bonum 
and  Nonpariel  are  favorites  in  Florida.  The  Tangerines 
and  Madarins,  or  the  "Kidglove"  oranges  (Fig.  218),  have 
a  thin  rind  that  is  easily  detached  from  the  rather  dry 
pulp.  Orange  trees  are  frequently  injured  by  various 
scale  insects,  but  for  several  of  the  most  troublesome 
kinds,  insect  parasites  have  been  found,  and  for  others 
the  trees  are  sprayed,  or  fumigated  with  hydrocyanic 
acid  gas. 


OLIVE -GROWING  329 


THE   OLIVE 

Although  olive  trees  thrive  best  on  a  warm,  rich  and 
well -drained  soil,  they  may  be  grown  with  success  on 
dry,  rocky  hillsides.  The  greater  part  of  southern  and 
central  California  is  adapted  to  the  culture  of  this  fruit. 
While  the  mean  annual  temperature  should  not  be  lower 
than  sixty  degrees,  the  olive  can  be  grown  with  success 
even  though  the  mercury  may  fall  to  fifteen  degrees, 
provided  the  average  temperature  for  the  coldest  month 
is  at  least  forty  degrees. 

The  trees  can  be  grown  from  seeds,  if  the  pulp  is  first 
removed  and  the  seeds  freed  from  oil  by  soaking  them 
in  lye.  They  may  also  be  readily  propagated  from  either 
long  or  short  half-hard  cuttings,  or  by  budding  or  graft- 
ing. The  trees  are  planted  from  twenty  to  twenty -five 
feet  apart  each  way,  and  on  account  of  their  drooping 
habit  they  should  be  trained  with  a  moderately  high 
trunk,  with  a  center  stem.  The  side  shoots  should  be 
headed-back  and  the  drooping  branches  removed. 

Olives  ripen  during  the  winter,  and  should  be  gathered 
as  soon  as  they  turn  purple.  If  to  be  used  for  oil,  the 
fruit  is  first  partially  dried  and  then  placed  in  masonry 
vats,  where  it  is  crushed  with  stone  or  iron  rollers.  The 
oil  is  then  pressed  out,  poured  into  tanks  or  vats  for 
settling,  and  then,  after  being  filtered  through  several 
thicknesses  of  cotton  batting  or  felt,  is  put  into  bottles. 

If  for  pickling,  care  should  be  taken  to  handle  the  fruit 
when  gathering  it  so  that  it  will  not  be  bruised.  It 
should  be  poured  into  tubs  of  water,  which  should  be 
changed  daily  for  a  month  or  so.  The  olives  are  then 
placed  in  weak  brine,  and  after  three  or  four  days  are 
changed  into  brine  that  will  bear  an  egg,  and  in  this 
can  be  kept  indefinitely.  Instead  of  going  to  the  trouble 
of  repeatedly  changing  the  water,  the  same  results  can 
be  secured,  i.  e.,  the  removal  of  the  bitter  taste,  if  the 


330  THE    FRUIT    PLANTATION 

olives  are  soaked   in   weak  lye   before  they  are    placed   in 
the  brine. 

Olive  trees  respond  to  good  care  and  cultivation,  and 
will  remain  in  fruit  for  many  years.  The  Mission  olive 
is  largely  grown  in  California,  and  Manzanillo,  Pendoulier, 
Uvaria,  Columella  and  Macrocarpa  are  receiving  at- 
tention. 

THE    PINEAPPLE 

This  fruit  thrives  on  rich  hammocks  and  clays,  although 
sandy  soil  with  a  yellow  subsoil  is  generally  preferred. 
It  is  propagated  either  from  suckers  that  spring  up  from 
the  base  of  old  plants,  from  the  bud  and  tuft  of  leaves 
above  the  fruit,  which  is  called  the  crown,  or  from  "slips" 
which  grow  from  the  stems  below  the  fruits.  They 
root  re-adily  by  inserting  them  in  beds  of  damp  moss  or 
sand,  after  removing  some  of  the  lower  leaves.  The 
ground  for  pineapples  is  prepared  by  opening  furrows 
or  shallow  trenches  a  foot  or  so  wide  and  deep,  in  which 
a  compost  of  manure,  leaves  and  muck  is  placed.  For 
large  fruits,  the  plants  should  not  be  closer  than  two 
feet  in  the  rows.  The  weeds  must  be  kept  down  by 
frequent  cultivation  or  by  a  heavy  mulch.  To  secure 
against  frost,  the  plants  must  be  covered.  For  this  pur- 
pose shingles  or  boards  can  be  used  while  the  plants  are 
small,  but  as  they  become  larger  stout  stakes  are  set  in 
the  ground;  these  are  connected  by  rails,  over  which 
brush  or  burlaps  are  placed.  With  good  care  the  fruit 
may  ripen  in  two  years,  although  three  or  four  may  elapse 
before  it  comes  to  maturity. 

Spanish,  Sugar  Loaf,  Egyptian,  Ripley  Queen,  and  Porto 
Rico  are  favorite  varieties  of  pines. 

BANANA 

This  fruit  can  be  grown  in  but  few  localities,  as  it  is 
greatly  injured  by  frost  and,  unlike  the  pineapple,  it  can- 


BANANA— FIG  331 

not  be  covered.  It  thrives  on  a  well-drained,  rich,  warm, 
sandy  loam.  The  plants,  which  can  be  readily  obtained 
from  suckers  sent  up  by  the  old  stems,  should  be  set 
eight  or  ten  feet  apart  each  way  in  holes  two  feet  deep 
and  three  feet  wide,  which  have  been  filled  with  a  rich 
compost.  They  should  be  heavily  mulched,  and  water 
should  be  freely  applied  when  necessary. 
Hart's  Choice  and  Martinique  are  excellent  varieties. 

FIG 

Few  fruits  can  be  grown  under  as  varied  conditions  of 
soil  and  climate  as  the  fig,  which  does  well  in  all  parts 
of  California,  except  on  the  mountains  and  in  the  more 
northern  counties ;  the  only  requirements  are  heat  enough 
to  ripen  the  fruit  and  a  winter  that  will  not  injure  the 
trees.  It  also  grows  well  in  Florida  and  parts  of  Georgia. 
They  are  propagated  from  cuttings  or  by  budding  and 
grafting.  For  a  permanent  orchard,  the  trees  should 
be  forty  feet  apart,  but  at  first  they  may  be  set  at  half 
that  distance  and  removed  later  on,  or  other  fruits  may 
be  grown  between  the  rows  for  several  years.  Fig  trees 
are  headed  rather  higher  than  other  fruits,  especially  if 
the  fruits  are  to  be  used  for  drying.  The  branches  should 
not  be  very  close  upon  the  trunks,  and  shoots  on  the 
under  side  of  the  limbs  should  be  removed.  After  the 
head  has  been  formed  little  pruning  will  be  required, 
and  the  trees  will  come  into  bearing  the  third  year. 

The  greatest  drawback  to  the  fig  industry  in  California 
is  that  growers  have  not  been  able  to  naturalize  the  insect 
necessary  to  secure  fertilization  of  the  seeds,  which  is  re- 
quired for  fruit  to  be  of  the  highest  quality  when  cured. 

White  Adriatic  is  the  most  commonly  grown  white  fig. 
Among  the  other  varieties  are  California  Black  or  Mis- 
sion fig,  Brown  Ischia,  Brown  Turkey,  Green  Ischia  and 
Celestial. 


332  THE    FRUIT    PLANTATION 

Even  as  far  north   as   Maryland,  figs   can   be   grown  by 
laying  them  down  in  winter. 


3.     The  Grape 

In  order  that  they  may  ripen,  in  most  of  the  states 
grapes  require  a  rather  warm  soil  and  a  sunny  exposure. 
That  they  may  escape  both  the  late  spring  and  early 
autumn  frosts,  they  should  be  planted  in  elevated  spots, 
as  far  as  possible.  The  distance  should  vary  according 
to  the  growth  of  the  variety  and  the  method  of  training. 
Some  of  the  small -growing  sorts  may  be  as  close  as 
eight  feet  each  way,  but  ten  feet  between  the  rows  is 
desirable  for  most  kinds;  although  some  growers  prune 
strong -growing  varieties  so  that  they  stand  sixteen  feet 
apart  in  the  row,  ten  or  twelve  feet  will  ordinarily  be 
better.  Trellises  are  much  more  commonly  used  than 
stakes  to  support  the  vines.  For  these  the  posts  are  set 
about  twenty -five  feet  apart,  so  that  they  will  stand  six 
feet  out  of  the  ground,  and  for  a  vertical  trellis,  two 
No.  10  galvanized  wires  are  placed  upon  them;  one  being 
at  the  top  of  the  posts,  and  the  other  two  feet  below  it. 
A  horizontal  trellis  is  preferred  by  some.  This  is  made 
by  placing  cross  arms  two  feet  long  near  the  top  of  the 
posts,  and  upon  these  stretching  three  wires  about  one 
foot  apart.  Persons  who  desire  specific  information  on 
training  grapes,  should  consult  "Pruning -Book." 

VARIETIES  OF  GRAPES. — Under  nearly  all  conditions,  the 
Concord  will  be  a  valuable  black  variety,  although  Wor- 
den,  which  is  a  few  days  earlier,  may  be  preferred  by 
many.  Moore's  Early  has  been  our  best  very  early  black 
variety,  but  is  likely  to  be  superseded  by  Campbell's 
Early,  which  is  a  stronger  vine,  more  productive,  bunches 
larger,  fruit  of  better  quality,  and  of  superior  keeping 
qualities,  making  it  valuable  for  shipping  purposes.  Ca- 


221.     The    bag  ready  to  be  adjusted. 


220.    Gall  on  a 
grape  cane. 


222.    Second  stage  in  adjusting  the  bag. 


334 


THE    FRUIT    PLANTATION 


tawba,  Delaware  and  Brighton  are  among  the  best  red 
varieties,  although  Agawam  and  Salem  are  much  used. 
Winchell  (Green  Mountain)  is  the  best  early  white  variety, 
and  in  most  sections  Niagara,  a  late  white  sort,  does  well. 
Moore  Diamond  is  a  white  grape  of  better  quality  than 
Niagara. 

THE  DISEASES  OF  THE  GRAPE.— Grape  -vines  are  subject 
to  the  attack  of  downy  mildew  in  cold,  wet  seasons,  of 
powdery  mildew  when  it  is  hot 
and  dry,  as  well  as  anthracnose 
and  black -rot.  All  of  these  are 
most  troublesome  upon  vines  that 
have  been  weakened  from  over- 
bearing, but  there  is  a  great  dif- 
erence  in  the  ability  of  the  vines 
of  different  varieties  to  resist 
their  attacks.  Where  any  of 
these  diseases  are  troublesome, 
the  prunings  and  the  fallen  leaves 
and  fruit  should  be  destroyed, 
and  the  vines  thoroughly  sprayed 
with  fungicides.  The  first  ap- 
plication should  be  made  in  the 
spring  before  growth  starts,  and 
the  others  at  intervals  or  two  or 
three  weeks  during  the  season, 
the  number  and  frequency  of  the 
applications  depending  upon  the 
prevalence  of  the  disease.* 


223.    The  operation 
completed 


*  A  nurseryman  sent  me  the  object  shown  in  Fig.  220,  saying  that  he 
took  it  from  a  grape-vine  near  which  grew  a  Kieffer  pear;  and  judg- 
ing from  this  perilous  proximity  of  the  two  plants  and  the  very  sus- 
picious shape  of  the  excrescence,  he  was  bound  to  conclude  that  he 
had  a  veritable  hybrid  between  a  grape  and  a  pear!  Even  at  the  risk 
of  seeming  to  be  unappreciative  of  discoveries  in  pomology,  I  was 
obliged  to  report  that  the  entomologist  declared  the  object  to  be  only 
a  gall— and  a  not  uncommon  one— produced  by  an  insect.— L  H.  B. 


GRAPES  335 

For  home  use  and  special  purposes,  grapes  may  be 
bagged,  to  protect  them  from  black -rot,  frost,  birds  and 
insects.  The  operation  consists  in  enclosing  the  cluster 
(when  the  grapes  are  half  grown)  in  grocers'  manilla 
bags,  allowing  these  bags  to  remain  until  the  grapes  are 
fully  ripe.  Because  of  the  greater  and  more  uniform 
warmth  in  the  bags,  the  fruits  in  them  are  usually  earlier, 
larger  and  better.  Figs.  221,  222,  223  show  how  the 
bags  are  prepared  and  applied,  the  flaps  being  secured 
with  a  pin. 

EUROPEAN  GRAPES 

The  cultivation  of  the  European  wine  grape  has  reached 
immense  proportions  in  California,  where  there  are  single 
vineyards  of  two  to  three  thousand  acres. 

Table  and  wine  grapes  are  grown  successfully  in  nearly 
all  parts  of  the  state,  but  the  raisin  industry  is  confined 
to  the  hot,  dry  valleys  where  the  fruit  can  be  cured. 
The  vine  thrives  upon  a  variety  of  soils,  but  for  the 
best  results  an  abundance  of  plant -food  should  be 
provided.  The  plants  are  propagated  by  layering,  bud- 
ding, grafting,  and  most  commonly  from  cuttings,  which 
are  inserted  in  the  ground  where  the  vine  is  to  grow. 
Most  of  the  grapes  are  grown  without  trellises,  and  in 
the  case  of  the  raisin  grapes,  the  trunk  is  seldom  more 
than  fifteen  inches  high,  while  wine  grapes  are  but  little 
more  than  two  feet.  As  generally  pruned,  the  vine  is 
cut  back  the  first  year  after  planting,  leaving  but  one 
spur  with  two  buds.  Shoots  are  allowed  to  grow  from 
these,  and  in  the  following  -winter  the  strongest  one  that 
is  upright  should  be  cut  off  at  the  height  the  head  is 
desired,  and  all  others  removed.  Upon  the  shoot  that  is 
left  all  but  two  strong  buds  at  the  top  should  be  rubbed 
off.  From  these,  arms  are  allowed  to  grow  which  are 
cut  back  at  the  end  of  the  year  to  three  or  four  buds 
each.  From  these  buds  the  spurs  are  formed.  The 


336  THE    FRUIT    PLANTATION 

number  should  vary  with  the  strength  of  the  plants  from 
five  to  eight,  and  the  number  of  buds  from  three  to  five 
upon  each.  Every  year  all  shoots  are  removed  except  one 
upon  each  spur,  which  is  cut  back  to  form  a  new  spur. 
It  is  well  to  rub  off  all  suckers  that  start  and  to  pinch 
back  the  ends  of  the  shoots  when  about  two  feet  long. 

Powdery  and  downy  mildew  attack  this  species,  but  yield 
to  fungicides. 

The  leading  table  grapes  are:  Thompson  Seedless, 
Mission,  White  Muscat  of  Alexandria,  Black  Hamburg, 
Flame  Tokay,  and  Rose  of  Peru.  The  leading  sorts  for 
drying  are:  White  Muscat,  Muscatel,  Thompson  Seed- 
less, White  Malaga,  and  Sultana.  From  the  fact  that  it 
seldom  rains  from  April  to  October  in  the  raisin  district 
in  California,  the  raisins  can  be  cured  in  the  open  air. 
Large  trays  of  the  fruit  are  placed  between  the  rows  in 
the  vineyards.  These  European  types  of  grapes  are  the 
ones  which  are  grown  in  glass  graperies,  a  discussion  of 
which  is  not  germane  to  this  book. 


4.     Small- fruits 

RED  AND   BLACK   RASPBERRIES 

The  distance  at  which  raspberries  should  be  planted 
varies  with  the  variety.  As  a  rule,  the  early  sorts  may 
be  placed  as  close  as  six  feet,  by  four  feet  in  the  row, 
or  even  less  if  they  are  to  .be  allowed  to.  form  matted 
rows,  but  the  larger -growing  late  sorts,  such  as  Gregg 
and  Eureka  among  the  black  and  Cuthbert  and  Colum- 
bian of  the  reds,  should  be  seven  or  eight  feet  apart  on 
rich  soil,  and  four  or  five  feet  in  the  row.  After  the  first 
year  or  two  the  red  varieties  may  be  allowed  to  throw 
up  suckers,  so  as  to  form  continuous  rows.  The  shoots 


RASPBERRIES 


337 


of   raspberries  sent  up  one  season  fruit   and    die  the  fol- 
lowing year. 

PRUNING  RASPBERRIES. — Most  of  the  black -cap  varie- 
ties naturally  throw  out  branches  the  first  season,  and 
with  all  such  it  is  a  good  plan  to  pinch  back  the  new 
canes  as  soon  as  they  have  reached  a  height  of  from  two 
to  three  feet,  according  to  the  full  height  of  the  variety. 
This  will  hasten  the  throwing  out  of  side  shoots,  upon 
which  fruit  will  be  borne  the  following  year.  As  soon 
as  severe  freezing  weather  is  over  in  the  spring,  these 


.    Rooting  "tip"  of  black  raspberry. 


side  shoots  should  be  cut  back  to  from  nine  to  twelve 
inches,  according  to  the  strength  of  the  canes  and  the 
number  of  side  branches  upon  them. 

The  same  method  of  pruning  is  advisable  with  red 
varieties  like  Cuthbert,  which  naturally  branch  freely. 
Other  sorts,  like  King,  Hansell,  Marlboro,  Turner,  and 
Thwack,  that  seldom  branch,  should  not  be  pinched  back 
in  summer,  as,  even  though  this  might  induce  them  Jto 
send  out  shoots,  the  branches  will  be  weak,  and  if  they 
survive  the  winter,  will  produce  less  fruit  than  would  the 
strong  buds  upon  the  main  canes  had  they  not  been 
forced  into  growth. 

Pruned  in  this  way,  nearly  all  varieties  will  have  stems 
sufficiently  large  to  support  themselves,  but  as  there  will 
V 


338 


THE    FRUIT    PLANTATION 


be  more  or  less  breaking  down,  and  injury  to  the  fruit 
from  the  bending  over  of  the  canes,  many  growers  prefer 
to  support  them  by  means  of  stakes  or  trellises.  Stakes 
may  be  set  in  each  hill,  or  for  matted  rows  stout  stakes 
three  feet  high  are  driven  at  intervals  of  forty  feet  and 
a  No.  10  galvanized  wire  is  stretched  along  the  row,  to 
which  the  canes  are  tied.  It  would  be  a  saving  of  labor 
if  a  wire  is  stretched  either  side  of  the  row,  as  then  no 
tying  will  be  required.  As  soon  as  the  crop  has  been 
gathered,  and  the  old  canes  are  dead,  they  should  be  re- 


225.     Suckers  of  red  raspberries. 


moved,  and  at  the  same  time  all  of  the  surplus  new 
shoots  should  be  cut  away.  From  four  to  five  good  canes 
will  be  sufficient  for  each  hill,  while  in  rows  the  number 
may  be  from  two  to  three  in  each  foot. 

If  it  is  desired  to  obtain  new  plants,  the  ends  of  the 
branches  of  the  black  varieties  should  be  covered  with 
soil  about  the  middle  of  August,  when  the  tips  are  seen 
to  divide  into  several  slender  shoots,  and  to  take  root 
(Fig.  224);  these  can  be  taken  up  and  planted  the  follow- 
ing spring.  While  the  suckers  that  spring  up  from  the 
roots  of  red  varieties  (Fig.  225),  may  be  used  in  propa- 
gating them,  it  will  be  better  to  use  plants  grown  from 
root  cuttings,  as  they  will  have  much  better  roots. 


RASPBERRIES— BLACKBERRIES       339 

VARIETIES  OP  RASPBERRIES. — Of  the  black  sorts  the 
following  will  be  found  desirable:  Palmer,  Conrath,  Kan- 
sas, and  Eureka,  which  ripen  in  the  order  named.  In 
some  sections  the  Gregg  is  still  valuable,  but  it  is  some- 
what lacking  in  hardiness.  Ohio  is  a  favorite  variety  for 
evaporating.  Of  the  purple -cap  varieties,  Shaffer  and 
Columbian  generally  succeed.  Among  the  red  varieties 
none  are  more  universally  successful  than  Cuthbert.  King 
is  a  promising  early  variety,  and  Loudon  is  a  valuable 
late  kind.  Many  growers  find  Marlboro  and  Turner  well 
worthy  of  cultivation,  although  rather  local  in  their  adap- 
tations; while  for  home  use,  Golden  Queen,  a  yellow 
Cuthbert,  is  much  liked. 

DISEASES. — The  most  troublesome  disease  of  the  rasp- 
berry is  anthracnose,  which  attacks  the  stems,  causing 
large  scars,  and  leads  to  the  drying  out  of  the  canes.  It 
is  most  troublesome  in  old,  neglected  plantations,  and  if 
veiy  serious  it  will  be  best  to  abandon  the  plantation  and 
start  a  new  one  with  healthy  plants.  Many  growers  find 
it  necessary  to  renew  their  plantation  as  often  as  once 
in  five  or  six  years,  in  order  to  secure  the  best  results. 
The  usd  of  Bordeaux  mixture  in  the  spring,  before  growth 
starts,  again  when  the  young  shoots  have  reached  a 
height  of  one  foot,  and  a  third  application  at  the  end 
of  two  or  three  weeks,  will  generally  secure  a  healthy 
growth,  provided  the  old  canes  have  not  been  severely 
injured. 

BLACKBERRIES    AND     DEWBERRIES 

In  a  general  way  the  planting  and  care  of  a  black- 
berry plantation  is  the  same  as  required  by  raspberries. 
From  the  fact  that  they  ripen  later  in  the  season,  when 
droughts  are  most  common,  even  greater  attention  should 
be  given  to  locating  them  upon  a  soil  that  is  retentive 
of  moisture,  and  to  providing  an  efficient  mulch,  which 
can  generally  best  be  secured  with  a  cultivator.  The 


340 


THE     FRUIT     PLANTATION 


stronger -growing  varieties  should  have  at  least  eight  feet 
between  the  rows,  but  some  of  the  smaller  rows  may  be 
planted  at  six  feet.  While  hill  culture  is  desirable  for 
the  garden,  commercial  growers  generally  use  continuous 
rows. 

VARIETIES  OF  BLACKBERRIES. — Many  of  the  better  varie- 
ties of  blackberries  are  lacking  in  hardiness,  and  cannot 
be  grown  except  in  the  more  favorable  localities.  Snyder 
and  Taylor  are  most  generally  successful,  although  Wilson 
and  Early  Harvest  are  often  grown  on 
a  large  scale  for  market,  and  do  well 
with  winter  protection.  Eldorado  is  a 
new  sort  much  like  Snyder,  that  seems 
hardy  and  productive.  Erie,  Minnewaski 
and  Early  King  are  in  many  sections 
large  and  valuable  sorts. 

Dewberries  are  trailing  blackberries. 
They  are  usually  earlier,  and  can  be 
more  easily  protected  in  winter.  They 
should  be  trained  to  a  trellis  or  tied 
to  stakes.  Lucretia  (Fig.  226)  is  the 
leading  variety. 

DISEASES. — The  most  troublesome  dis- 
ease of  the  blackberry  is  orange  rust, 
which  often  proves  very  destructive, 
particularly  to  Kittatinny  and  a  few 
other  sorts.  While  spraying  may  aid 
in  preventing  its  spread,  there  is  no 
remedy,  and  on  the  first  appearance 
of  the  disease  the  infected  canes  should  be  removed  and 
burned. 

CURRANTS 

Currants  delight  in  a  cool,  moist  soil,  and  cannot  be 
grown  successfully  in  the  southern  states.  While  many 
growers  place  them  five  feet  each  way,  some  prefer  to 


226.     Lucretia  dew 

berry.     Natural 

size. 


CURRANT  341 

have  them  six  or  seven  feet  between  the  rows.  For  the 
first  year  or  two  after  planting,  the  currants  require  but 
little  care  in  pruning,  except  to  cut  back  the  new  shoots 
about  one -half,-  and  if  very  thick,  to  remove  the  weaker 
ones.  As  the  fruit  is  borne  upon  the  old  canes,  there 
should  be  in  each  hill  at  least  five  or  six  fruiting  stalks, 
which  should  be  allowed  to  remain  until  four  or  five 
years  old,  when  they  should  be  removed  and  new  canes 
provided  to  take  their  place.  As  the  vines  get  older, 
the  annual  pruning  will  consist  in  the  removal  of  one 
or  two  of  the  old  canes  and  the  thinning  out  of  all  sur- 
plus shoots.  One  or  two  new  shoots  should  be  allowed 
to  remain,  to  take  the  place  of  the  old  ones  that  are  re- 
moved. 

INSECTS  AND  DISEASES  OF  THE  CURRANT. — Currants  are 
frequently  much  injured  by  borers,  which  work  in  the 
pith  of  the  canes  and  destroy  them.  Varieties  with  a 
large  pith  and  soft  wood  are  most  troubled  by  them.  All 
dead  and  dying  canes  should  at  once  be  removed  and 
burned,  as  should  all  canes  that  in  pruning  are  found 
to  have  the  borers  in  them.  The  currant  worms  also 
do  much  harm,  and  frequently  defoliate  the  plants.  The 
eggs  hatch  when  the  leaves  are  about  one -half  grown, 
and  if  the  plants  are  at  that  time  thoroughly  sprayed 
with  Paris  green  at  the  rate  of  one  pound  to  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  gallons  of  water,  the  first  brood  will  be 
destroyed  and  there  will  generally  be  little  trouble  from 
the  second.  If  they  appear  after  the  fruit  is  half  grown, 
they  can  be  destroyed  with  pyrethrum,  used  at  the  rate 
of  a  tablespoonful  to  a  gallon  of  water.  Currants  are 
also  likely  'to  be  injured  by  various  forms  of  leaf -blight, 
but  the  foliage  can  be  preserved  by  the  use  of  Bordeaux 
mixtur'*  in  the  spring  and  again  after  the  crop  has  been 
gathered.  The  first  application  may  be  made  at  the  same 
time  as  that  of  the  Paris  green  for  the  currant  worms. 

VARIETIES    OF    CURRANTS. — In    most    sections    the     Red 


342  THE    FRUIT     PLANTATION 

Dutch  will  be  found  to  be  the  most  satisfactory  variety, 
as  the  plants  are  much  less  injured  by  borers  than  are 
Cherry,  Fay  and  Versailles,  which  are  larger  and  better 
varieties,  and  are  to  be  preferred  in  sections  where  the 
borers  are  not  troublesome.  Victoria  is  a  valuable  market 
sort  where  borers  are  numerous,  as  they  are  little  injured 
by  them.  The  same  is  also  true  of  Prince  Albert,  which 
is  little  attacked  by  currant  worms  and  is  particularly 
valuable  as  a  late  sort.  White  Dutch  and  White  Grape 
are  valuable  light-colored  varieties,  and  Black  Naples  as  a 
variety  for  jelly. 

GOOSEBERRIES 

While  this  fruit,  like  the  currant,  delights  in  a  cool, 
moist  soil,  it  should  only  be  planted  where  it  can  have  a 
free  circulation  of  air,  unless  it  is  in  partial  shade.  The 
distance  should  be  the  same  as  given  for  the  currant,  and 
it  will  well  repay  the  best  of  cultivation.  From  the 
tendency  of  most  varieties  to  throw  up  suckers,  careful 
attention  should  be  paid,  particularly  while  the  plants  are 
young,  to  the  removal  of  surplus  shoots,  in  order  to  secure 
an  open  head.  Aside  from  the  heading-back  of  the  young 
shoots  and  the  removal  of  the  older  canes,  little  pruning 
will  be  required.  If  soil  of  a  suitable  nature  cannot  be 
secured,  few  plants  will  be  more  benefited  by  a  mulch. 

INSECTS  AND  DISEASES.— Gooseberrries  are,  even  more 
than  the  currant,  attacked  by  the  currant  worms,  and 
the  same  remedies  should  be  used  upon  them.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  leaf-blight,  gooseberries,  particularly  the  va- 
rieties of  English  origin,  are  often  much  injured  by 
powdery  mildew,  which  attacks  stems,  leaves  and  fruits. 
It  is  most  troublesome  in  dry  seasons  and  on  dry  soils, 
especially  as  the  gooseberry  thrives  best  in  a  cool,  moist 
climate.  Much  can  be  done  to  prevent  its  attack  by  a 
proper  selection  of  soil ;  by  planting  either  in  a  partial 
shade,  or  upon  a  hill-side,  where  the  air  can  have  a  free 


GOOSEBERRIES — STRAWBERRIES  343 

circulation,  as  well  as  by  the  removal  of  the  lower  branches 
and  training  the  plants  in  an  open,  vase -shaped  form. 
The  disease  yields  readily  to  the  application  of  fungicides, 
and  all  plants  of  European  origin  should  be  sprayed  in 
the  spring,  before  growth  starts,  with  Bordeaux  mixture, 
and  the  application  should  be  repeated  at  intervals  of 
from  ten  days  to  two  weeks,  from  the  time  the  leaves 
are  half-grown  until  there  is  danger  of  spotting  the  fruit. 
From  that  time  until  the  fruit  is  gathered,  a  solution 
of  sulphide  of  potassium,  at  the  rate  of  one  ounce  to 
three  gallons,  should  be  used  at  frequent  intervals.  After 
the  fruit  has  been  picked,  Bordeaux  mixture  should  be 
applied,  and  the  application  repeated  on  the  first  ap- 
pearance of  the  disease. 

VARIETIES  OF  GOOSEBERRIES. — For  ordinary  use  the  Down- 
ing can  generally  be  recommended.  It  is  hardy,  produc- 
tive, of  fair  size  and  greenish  white  in  color.  Houghton 
is  even  more  hardy  and  productive,  but  the  fruit  is  rather 
small  and  of  a  dark  red  color.  Among  the  varieties  of 
European  origin  which  can  be  successfully  grown,  if  the 
mildew  can  be  prevented,  are  Industry,  Triumph,  Keep- 
sake, Lancashire  Lad,  and  Golden  Prolific.  Among  other 
varieties  that  are  promising,  are  Champion,  Columbus, 
Chautauqua,  and  Red  Jacket. 

STRAWBERRIES 

While  strawberries  thrive  upon  a  variety  of  soils,  they 
generally  succeed  best  upon  a  strong,  sandy  loam,  or  a 
light  clay  loam.  For  most  purposes  it  will  be  found  best 
to  grow  them  in  narrow,  matted  rows.  The  plants  should 
be  set  as  early  in  the  spring  as  the  ground  can  be  worked, 
in  rows  three  and  one-half  feet  apart,  and  from  one  to 
two  feet  in  the  row,  according  to  the  tendency  of  the 
variety  to  form  runners.  The  planting  can  be  done  with 
a  trowel,  spade,  or  dibble,  taking  care  to  spread  the  roots 


344 


THE     FRUIT     PLANTATION 


out  as  much  as  possible  and  to  press  the  soil  firmly  about 
them,  holding  the  plant  so  that  the  bud  will  be  just  above 
the  surface.  If  the  season  is  late  and  the  weather  is  hot 
and  dry,  some  or  all  of  the  older  leaves  should  be  re- 
moved. If  water  is  used,  it  should  be  poured  about  the 
roots  before  the  hole  is  filled  and  as  soon  as  it  has  soaked 
away  the  remaining  soil  should  be  packed  about  the 
plants.  During 'the  first  season  the  blossom  stalks  should 


227.    Potted  strawberry  plant. 


be  removed  as  soon  as  they  appear,  and  the  runners  should 
be  restricted  to  a  space  about  one  foot  wide.  Some  per- 
sons prefer  to  still  farther  reduce  the  number  of  plants, 
and  after  layering  from  three  to  four  plants  between  those 
originally  set,  all  others  are  removed. 

Strawberries  are  often  set  in  August  or  September,  but 


STRAWBERRY  345 

this  is  advisable  only  for  small  patches  or  when  the  soil 
is  in  the  best  possible  condition  and  the  highest  culture  is 
given.  For  garden  culture,  it  may  pay  to  secure  potted 
plants  (Fig.  227).  These  are  sold  by  many  nurserymen, 
and  they  may  be  obtained  by  plunging  pots  beneath  the 
runners  as  soon  as  the  fruiting  season  is  passed.  In 
August,  the  plant  should  fill  the  pot  (which  should  be 
three -inch  or  four -inch)  and  the  plant  is  ready  for  setting 
in  the  plantation.  Such  plants  should  bear  a  good  crop 
the  following  spring. 

With  the  highest  culture,  good  results  can  be  obtained 
from  the  hill  system  of  growing  strawberries.  For  this 
the  plants  may  be  set  in  rows  three  feet  apart  and  one 
foot  in  the  row,  or  if  it  be  worked  both  ways,  they  may 
be  from  two  to  two  and  one -half  feet  each  way.  In  the 
small  garden,  where  a  horse  cannot  be  used,  the  plants  are 
frequently  set  one  foot  each  way,  arranging  them  in  beds 
of  from  three  to  five  rows,  with  walks  two  feet  wide 
between  them.  As  fast  as  runners  form,  they  should  be 
removed,  so  that  the  entire  vigor  of  the  plant  will  be 
exerted  in  strengthening  the  crown.  When  extra  fine 
specimen  berries  are  desired,  the  plant  may  be  held  above 
the  ground  by  a  wire  frame,  as  shown  in  Fig.  228. 

During  the  first  season  strawberries  should  be  frequently 
worked,  rather  deep  at  first,  but  as  the  weather  becomes 
warm  and  the  roots  fill  the  ground,  it  should  be  restricted 
to  a  depth  of  not  more  than  two  inches.  The  weeds 
should  never  be  allowed  to  get  a  start,  and  if  the  season 
is  dry,  cultivation  should  be  so  fre- 
quent that  the  surface  soil  should  at 
all  times  be  loose  and  open,  forming 
a  dust  mulch  to  conserve  the  mois- 
ture. If  the  fall  is  moist  and  the 
plantation  free  from  weeds,  there 
will  be  little  occasion  for  cultivation 

990 

after  the  first  of  September,  until  just 


346  THE    FRUIT    PLANTATION 

before  the  ground  freezes  up,  when  a  thorough  cultivation 
should  be  given.  In  addition  to  the  horse  cultivation,  tht 
hoe  should  be  used  whenever  necessary  to  loosen  the  soil 
about  the  plants  and  to  destroy  weeds  that  may  start  in 
the  row. 

After  the  ground  has  frozen,  it  will  be  advisable  to 
mulch  the  plants  by  covering  the  space  between  the  rows 
with  some  waste  material  to  the  depth  of  about  two 
inches.  Directly  over  the  plants  a  covering  of  one  inch 
will  generally  suffice.  The  material  used  should  be  free 
from  the  seeds  of  grass  and  weeds,  and  should  be  such 
as  will  remain  upon  the  beds  without  blowing  off  and 
that  will  not  pack  down  too  closely  upon  the  plants. 
Marsh  hay  makes  an  ideal  mulch,  but  where  it  can  not  be 
secured,  straw  will  answer.  Corn  fodder  makes  a  clean 
but  rather  coarse  mulch,  and  where  they  can  be  held  in 
place  by  some  other  material,  forest  leaves  do  well  as  a 
mulch  between  the  rows.  In  the  spring  the  straw  should 
be  removed  from  over  the  plants  and  allowed  to  remain 
between  the  rows  as  a  mulch,  or  all  of  it  may  be  removed 
and  the  soil  worked  with  a  cultivator. 

A  large  crop  should  be  produced  the  second  season,  and 
many  believe  it  best  to  renew  the  plantation  each  year, 
but  if  the  plants  are  healthy  and  the  ground  free  from 
grass  and  weeds,  the  plantation  can  often  be  retained  for 
a  second  crop.  It  will  be  well  to  plow  the  soil  away  from 
the  rows  so  as  to  leave  but  a  narrow  strip,  and  along  this 
the  old  plants  should  be  cut  out  so  as  to  leave  the  new 
plants  about  one  foot  apart.  If  this  is  done  in  July,  the 
rows  should  fill  up  by  winter,  so  as  to  be  in  about  the 
same  condition  as  a  new  bed. 

VARIETIES  OF  STRAWBERRIES. — For  most  parts  of  the 
country,  Haverland,  Warfield,  Bubach  and  Gandy  afford 
a  succession  and  are  all  hardy  and  productive  varieties. 
The  first  three  are  imperfect- flowered  varieties  and  some 
such  perfect -flowering  kinds,  as  Lovett  or  Beder  Wood, 


STRAWBERRY  347 

should  be  provided  to  fertilize  them.  Among  other  va- 
rieties that  do  well  in  most  sections,  are  Brandywine, 
Greenville,  Clyde,  and  Woolverton.  Parker  Earle  is  very 
late,  and  is  valuable  for  either  home  use  or  market,  upon 
strong,  moist  soils,  where  it  can  have  the  best  of  care. 
William  Belt  and  Marshall  have  large,  showy  fruits,  and 
do  well  on  strong  soil. 

INSECTS  AND  DISEASES  OF  THE  STRAWBERRY. — The  insect 
most  commonly  troublesome  to  the  strawberry  grower  is 
the  common  June -bug,  or  May -beetle,  the  larvae  of  which 
are  often  very  common  in  land  that  has  been  in  sod. 
Two  years  should  elapse  before  sod  land  is  used  for  this 
crop. 

Cut -worms  are  often  troublesome,  but  plowing  the  land 
the  fall  previous  to  setting  the  plants  will  result  in  de- 
stroying many  of  them.  They  can  be  poisoned  by  sprink- 
ling about  the  field  clover  or  other  green  plants  that 
have  been  soaked  in  Paris  green  water. 

There  are  also  a  number  of  leaf -rollers  and  other  larvae 
that  feed  upon  the  foliage  of  the  strawberry,  "but  they 
will  do  little  harm,  if  on  their  first  appearance  the  plants 
are  thoroughly  sprayed  with  Paris  green  water. 

The  most  common  fungous  disease  of  the  strawberry  is 
leaf -blight  or  "rust,"  which  frequently  causes  much  injury 
to  the  foliage,  and  may  result  in  the  loss  of  the  crop. 
Varieties  least  subject  to  the  disease  should  be  chosen 
for  planting,  and  upon  suitable  soils  and  well  cared  for, 
there  need  be  little  loss  from  this  disease  if  the  planta- 
tion is  frequently  renewed. 


SECTION  V 


THE    VEGETABLE    GARDEN 

It  is  essential  to  any  satisfaction  in  vegetable 
growing  that  the  soil  be  rich  and  thoroughly 
subdued  and  fined.  The  plantation  should  also 
be  so  arranged  that  the  tilling  can  be  done  with 
wheel  tools,  and,  where  the  space  will  allow  it, 


229.    Cultivating  the  back-ache. 

with  horse  tools.  The  old-time  garden  bed  (Fig. 
229)  consumes  time  and  labor,  wastes  moisture, 
and  is  more  trouble  and  expense  than  it  is 
worth. 

The  rows  of  vegetables  should  be  long  and 
continuous,  to  allow  of  tillage  with  wheel  tools. 
If  it  is  not  desired  to  grow  a  full  row  of  any 

(348) 


6ft.'6ft.4ft   4ft.|  3     3   2ii2.V;2ii4ft.  4ft.  4  ft.  .4  ft. 

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230. 


Tracy's  plan  for  a  kitchen -garden. 
Rule-Book." 


From  "Horticulturist's 


THE    VEGETABLE    GARDEN 

one  vegetable,  the  row  may  be  made   up  of   sev- 
eral  species,   one    following   the   other.      One   or 


231.    Suggestion  for  a  garden  fence. 

two  long  rows  containing  a  dozen  kinds  of  vege- 
tables are  usually  preferable  to  a  dozen  short 
rows,  each  with  one  kind  of  vegetable.  Fig.  230 
shows  a  good  plan  for  a  kitchen  garden.  Fig. 


o  o 

fio^v-s   2f~r.Af>Air        ftows3F~r.Ar>Ab 


352  THE    VEGETABLE    GARDEN 

231  is  a  plan  of  a  fenced  garden,  in  which  gates 
are  provided  at  the  ends  to  allow  the  turning  of 
a  horse  and  cultivator  (Webb  Donnell,  in  Ameri- 
can Gardening).  Fig.  232  shows  a  garden  with 
continuous  rows  but  with  two  breaks  running 
across  the  area  dividing  the  plantation  into  blocks. 
The  area  is  surrounded  with  a  windbreak,  and 
the  frames  and  permanent  plants  are  at  one 
side. 

It  is  by  no  means  necessary  that  the  vegetable 
garden  should  contain  only  kitchen -garden  vege- 
tables. Flowers  may  be  dropped  in  here  and 
there,  wherever  a  vacant  corner  occurs  or  a  plant 
dies.  Such  informal  and  mixed  gardens  usually 
have  a  personal  character  which  adds  greatly  to 
their  interest,  and,  therefore,  to  their  value.  One 
is  generally  impressed  with  this  informal  char- 
acter of  the  home -gardens  in  many  European 
countries,  a  type  of  planting  which  arises  from 
the  necessity  of  making  the  most  of  every  inch 
of:  land.  It  was  the  writer's  pleasure  to  look 
over  the  fence  of  a  Bavarian  peasant's  garden 
and  to  see,  on  a  space  about  forty  feet  by  one 
hundred  feet  in  area,  a  delightful  mixture  of 
onions,  pole  beans,  peonies,  celery,  balsams, 
gooseberries,  coleus,  cabbages,  sunflowers,  beets, 
poppies,  cucumbers,  morning-glories,  kohl-rabi, 
verbenas,  bush  beans,  pinks,  stocks,  currants, 
wormwood,  parsley,  carrots,  kale,  perennial  phlox, 
nasturtiums,  feverfew,  lettuce,  lilies! 


VEGETABLES  353 

HOW  TO  GROW  VEGETABLES* 

fF.  A.  WAUGH) 

1.   Boot  Crops  and  Tubers— Beet,  Carrot,  Parsnip,  Potato,  etc. 

To  grow  root  crops,  loose  and  deep  soil,  free  from  clods, 
is  required.  The  land  must  also  be  perfectly  drained,  not 
only  to  remove  superfluous  moisture,  but  to  provide  a  deep 
and  friable  soil.  Subsoiling  is  useful  in  hard  lands.  A 
large  admixture  of  sand  is  generally  desirable,  provided 
the  soil  is  not  apt  to  overheat  in  sunny  weather. 

To  keep  roots  fresh  in  the  cellar,  pack  them  in  barrels, 
boxes  or  bins  of  sand  which  is  just  naturally  moist,  allow- 
ing each  root  to  come  wholly  or  partly  in  contact  with  the 
sand.  The  best  material  in  which  to  pack  them  is  sphag- 
num moss,  the  same  which  nurserymen  use  in  packing 
trees  for  shipment,  and  which  may  be  obtained  in  bogs 
in  many  parts  of  the  country.  In  either  sand  or  sphag- 
num, the  roots  will  not  shrivel;  but  if  the  cellar  is  warm, 
they  may  start  to  grow.  Roots  can  also  be  buried  after  the 
manner  of  potatoes. 

BEETS  are  best  grown  in  drills  three  and  a-half  feet  apart. 
The  seeds,  if  fresh,  are  sown  rather  sparsely  very  early  in 
the  season,  and  covered  with  an  inch  of  mellow  soil.  The 
young  plants  will  endure  light  frost.  When  the  plants  be- 
gin to  grow  they  should  be  thinned  to  six  or  eight  inches  in 
the  row.  The  young  plants  which  are  removed  may  be 
used  for  greens.  For  winter  beets,  sow  in  July  or  August 
in  the  same  manner,  and  after  the  first  heavy  frost  take  up 
the  roots,  cut  off  the  tops,  sort,  and  store  in  a  root  cellar 
or  pit.  For  first  crop,  select  short  or  globular  varieties, 
such  as  Extra  Early  Egyptian,  Early  Eclipse  or  Bastian's 

*Mushrooms,  being  grown  indoors,  do  not  come  under  the  purview  of 
this  book.  Consult  Falconer's  book  on  "  Mxishrooms." 

For  succinct  advice  on  the  treatment  of  insects  and  fungi,  consult 
the  last  edition  of  Horticulturist's  Rule- Book, 

W 


354 


THE    VEGETABLE    GARDEN 


(Fig.  233)  Blood  Turnip.  For  winter  crop,  choose  Long 
Dark  Blood.  Some  of  the  early  varieties,  when  sown  late, 
are  also  good  keepers.  (For  Swiss  Chard,  see  page  379.) 

Beets  are  generally  free  from  insect  and  fungous  troubles, 
although  a    leaf -blight    is    common    in    some    places.     For 


233.     Bastian  Turnip  beet. 


234.     A  half-long  carrot. 


this  two  or  three  sprayings  with  Bordeaux  mixture,  before 
the  disease  makes  headway,   are  effective. 

TURNIPS  should  be  grown  in  drills,  like  beets,  for  the 
early  crop.  The  young  plants  will  stand  light  frosts. 
Choose  a  rainy  day  for  planting,  if  practicable.  Cover 
the  seed  very  lightly.  Thin  the  young  plants  to  five  to 
seven  inches  in  the  row.  Sow  every  two  weeks  if  a  con- 


ROOT    CROPS  355 

stant  supply  is  desired,  as  turnips  rapidly  become  hard  and 
woody  in  warm  summer  weather.  For  the  fall  and  winter 
crop  in  the  North, 

"  On  the  fourteenth  day  of  July, 
Sow  your  turnips,  wet  or  dry." 

In  many  parts  of  the  Northern  and  Middle  states  tradition 
fixes  the  25th  of  July  as  the  proper  time  for  sowing  flat 
turnips  for  winter  use.  In  the  Middle  states,  turnips 
are  sometimes  sown  as  late  as  the  end  of  August. 

Or,  take  advantage  of  any  convenient  leisure  at  about 
that  season  to  prepare  a  piece  of  very  mellow  ground,  and 
sow  the  seed  thinly  and  evenly  broadcast.  In  spite  of  the 
old  rhyme,  a  gentle  shower  will  then  be  acceptable.  These 
turnips  are  pulled  after  frostj  the  tops  removed,  and  the 
roots  stored  in  cellars  or  pits.  For  the  early  crop,  Purple - 
top  Strap -leaf,  Early  White  Flat  Dutch  and  Early  Purple  - 
top  Milan  are  the  favorite  varieties.  Yellow- fleshed  sorts 
like  Golden  Ball  are  very  fine  for  early  table  use,  when 
well  grown,  but  most  eaters  prefer  white  turnips  in  spring, 
although  they  occasionally  patronize  the  yellow  varieties  in 
the  fall.  Yellow  Globe  is  the  favorite  yellow  fall  turnip, 
though  some  persons  grow  yellow  ruta-bagas  and  call  them 
turnips.  For  late  crop  of  white  turnips,  the  same  varieties 
chosen  for  spring  sowing  are  also  desirable. 

RUTA-BAGAS  are  distinguished  from  turnips  by  their 
smooth,  bluish  foliage,  long  root  and  yellow  flesh.  They 
are  richer  than  turnips;  but  they  require  the  same  treat- 
ment, except  that  the  season  of  growth  is  longer.  Fall- 
sown  or  summer- sown  bagas  should  have  a  month  the  start 
of  flat  turnips. 

Except  the  maggot  (see  Radish),  there  are  no  serious 
insects  or  diseases  peculiar  to  turnips  and  bagas. 

CARROTS  should  be  kept  on  hand  in  a  state  of  tender  im- 
maturity throughout  the  season,  to  be  used  in  soups,  salads, 
boiled  dinners,  and  other  savory  cookery.  With  this  in 
view,  several  small  successional  sowings  should  be  made  of 


356 


THE    VEGETABLE    GARDEN 


small-growing,  fine-grained  varieties,  as  Early  Scarlet 
Horn  or  Earliest  Short-horn.  Early  Half-long  Scarlet 
(Fig.  234)  is  desirable  for  later  crops  and  for  storing  in 


235.     Student  parsnip. 


236.     Salsify. 


the  root-cellar  for  winter  use.  Carrots  for  the  kitchen- 
garden  may  be  sown  very  early  in  drills  one  foot  apart  in 
beds,  or  three  by  three  and  a  half  feet  apart  for  horse  cul- 
tivation. Cover  the  seed  very  lightly,  pressing  down  the 
soil  firmly.  Thin  young  plants  to  four  inches  in  a  row. 


ROOT    CROPS  357 

Carrot  seed  is  small,  arid  germinates  slowly.  Be  careful 
that  the  earth  does  not  bake  over  the  row  before  the  plants 
come  up.  Radish  seed  sown  in  the  same  drill  (page  37) 
will  break  the  crust  and  mark  the  row.  For  late  crop,  seed 
may  be  sown  as  late  as  midsummer,  unless  the  very  large 
varieties  are  used. 

There  are  no  serious  enemies  or  diseases. 

PARSNIP.  Treat  exactly  like  carrot,  so  far  as  sowing 
and  thinning  are  concerned.  For  early  use  and  summer 
successions,  plant  Early  Round,  and  for  later  crops  Long 
Smooth,  or  some  good  strain  of  Hollow  Crown.  Parsnips 
may  be  left  in  the  ground  all  winter  without  protection, 
and  the  roots  are  then  dug  in  warm  spells,  or  in  spring,  as 
wanted.  The  main-crop  varieties,  as  Long  Smooth,  Hollow 
Crown  and  Student  (Fig.  235)  require  the  entire  season  in 
which  to  grow. 

No  serious  enemies  or  diseases. 

SALSIFY  (Fig.  236).  This  delicious  and  much-neglected 
vegetable  requires  the  entire  summer  for  its  development. 
Sow  in  early  spring,  being  careful  not  to  plant  too  thick. 
Thinning  is  a  little  difficult,  but  the  plants  must  not  be 
crowded.  Leave  four  to  five  inches  between  plants.  When 
the  ground  does  not  freeze  excessively,  salsify  roots  may  be 
left  out  throughout  the  winter,  and  dug  whenever  a  potato 
fork  or  a  crowbar  will  get  them  out.  Usually,  however, 
the  roots  should  be  dug  before  the  soil  freezes,  and  stored  in 
slightly  moist  soil,  or  in  moss,  in  a  frame  or  cellar.  Mam- 
moth Sandwich  Island  is  practically  the  only  variety  offered 
for  sale. 

No  enemies. 

RADISH.  The  first  crop  in  spring  should  be  grown  in  hot- 
beds or  frames  (See  pages  67  to  88)  ;  but  a  tolerably  early 
crop  may  be  secured  in  the  open  ground.  A  mellow 
"  quick"  soil  is  essential.  Radishes  do  not  thrive  in  clay. 
Radishes  must  grow  very  rapidly  to  be  tender,  and  they 
should  be  eaten  while  still  small.  Sow  in  drills  a  foot  or 


358 


THE    VEGETABLE    GARDEN 


fourteen  inches  apart,  and  thin  to  three  inches  in  the  row 
as  soon  as  the  young  plants  are  well  up.  There  are  many 
desirable  early  varieties,  as  French  Breakfast,  Olive -shaped 
Scarlet,  Early  Scarlet  Turnip  and  Red  Turnip, 
the  red  or  pink  varieties  usually  having  the 
preference  for  table  use.  Long  Scarlet  Short- 
top  is  a  standard  late  variety. 

In  summer,  the  small  spring  radishes  do  not 
thrive,  but  larger  and  white  varieties  are  then 
used,  as  White  Strasburg  and  Stuttgart.  There 
are  winter  radishes,— as  California  Mammoth 
White,  Long  Black  Spanish,  Scarlet  Chinese, — 
which  may  be  stored  as 
beets  and  turnips  are. 

The  radish  is  very 
liable  to  the  attacks  of 
grubs,  which  are  the 
lavas  of  a  small  fly. 
These  insects  burrow  in 
the  root,  and  make  it 
"wormy."  The  only  ef- 
fective escape  is  to  plant 
in  soil  which  has  not 
been  infested  within  two 
or  three  years.  Constant 
rotation  will  keep  the 
pests  in  check ;  but  they 
also  work  on  turnips. 
When  the  insects  are 
troublesome,  the  crops 
should  be  grown  on  op- 
posite sides  of  the  garden  in  successive  years,  and  when 
they  are  very  bad  it  may  be  necessary  to  give  up  growing 
radishes  and  turnips  for  a  time.  The  bisulphide  of  car- 
bon treatment  recommended  for  cabbage  is  effective,  but 
would  hardly  pay  with  radishes. 


237.     French  Breakfast 

and  Olive-shaped 

radishes. 


238.    Good 

horse-radish 

root. 


ROOTS    AND    TUBERS  359 

HORSE-RADISH  is  a  perennial,  but  for  market  it  is  chiefly 
grown  as  an  annual  crop.  It  is  propagated  by  "sets," 
which  are  small  roots  (the  size  of  one's  finger  or  a  lead 
pencil),  which  are  trimmed  from  the  large  roots  when 
the  crop  is  stored  in  the  fall.  These  sets  should  be  four 
to  six  inches  long,  the  top  end  cut  off  square,  so  as  to 
mark  the  right  end  up,  for  if  the  sets  are  planted  wrong  end 
up,  crooked  roots  will  result.  To  raise  good  horse-radish, 
the  land  should  be  deep  and  loose.  The  sets  are  planted 
two  or  three  inches  deep  in  a  vertical  position,  and  fifteen 
to  eighteen  inches  apart.  It  is  customary  to  plant  them 
in  alternate  rows  or  ridges  in  plantations  of  early  beets  or 
spinach,  or  other  spring  crops,  allowing  the  roots  to  be 
three  or  three  and  one -half  feet  apart.  Plant  early,  and 
by  early  summer  let  the  horse-radish  have  all  the  land. 
The  roots  (Fig.  238)  are  dug  in  late  fall,  and  care  is 
taken  to  get  all  the  pieces  of  roots  out  of  the  land,  for  the 
plant  is  apt  to  become  a  bad  weed.  If  the  land  is  plowed 
up  deep  and  loose  in  the  fall,  most  of  the  remaining 
roots  can  be  picked  out  in  spring.  If  old  roots  or  crowns 
are  planted,  crooked  and  branchy  roots  are  obtained. 

POTATO.  The  culture  of  the  potato  is  so  simple  and 
well  known  as  to  need  no  description.  Level  culture 
is  usually  best.  Early  Ohio,  Polaris,  and  Rural  New- 
Yorker  are  favorite  varieties  among  hundreds  of  good 
ones.  (Consult  Farmers'  Bulletin  35,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. ; 
also  Bulletin  140,  Cornell  Exp.  Sta.) 

SWEET  POTATO  plants  are  usually  started  in  hotbeds, 
by  planting  the  tubers.  The  plants  are  then  slipped 
off  the  tubers  with  the  thumb,  and  set  two  feet  apart 
in  rows  five  or  six  feet  apart.  Frequently  the  rows  are 
ridged,  but  this  will  depend  on  soil,  climate  and  drainage. 
Varieties  differ  greatly;  but  selection  among  them  is 
mostly  a  matter  of  taste.  Some  persons  prefer  the  dry, 
mellow,  yellow  or  white  potatoes,  others  choose  the 
sugary  yams.  Yellow  Nansemond,  White  Nanseniond, 


360 


THE    VEGETABLE    GARDEN 


Southern  Queen  and  Vineless  are  generally  in  good 
repute.  (Consult  Farmers'  Bulletin  26,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. ; 
also  Price's  "Sweet  Potato  Culture  for  Profit.") 

2.     Alliaceous  Group — Onions,  etc. 

ONION.'  Onions  may  be  grown  from  seeds  or  from  sets. 
If  seeds  are  used  they  may  be  sown  in  the  open  ground 
where  the  bulbs  are  to  mature,  or  they  may  be  sown  in 
greenhouses  or  hotbeds  and  the  young  plantlets  trans- 
planted to  the  rows  in  the 
open  ground.  In  sowing 
out  of  doors,  seeds  should 
be  put  in  as  early  as  pos- 
sible, in  shallow  drills 
three  to  three  and  one- 
half  feet  apart,  and  cov- 
ered with  a  half  inch  of 
fine,  moist  earth.  They 
need  to  be  very  carefully 
weeded  at  first,  but  if  the 
ground  is  clean  and  mel- 
low and  the  rows  straight 
the  wheel -hoe  will  be  able 
to  take  full  charge  of  the 
work  early  in  the  season. 
It  has  been  repeatedly 
shown  that  cheaper,  bet- 
ter and  earlier  onions  can 
be  grown  by  transplanting 
the  plants  from  green- 
houses or  hotbeds,  where 
the  seeds  are  sown  very 
early.  When  the  plant - 
lets  are  as  large  as  a 

lead  pencil,  they  are  set      m    Bunch  oniong  grown  from  geed 
four  inches  apart  in  rows  Of  the  Italian  type. 


ONIONS— BEANS  361 

three  feet  asunder,  and  cultivation  is  immediately  begun 
with  the  wheel-hoe.  In  growing  from  sets  the  planting 
is  made  in  much  the  same  way.  Multiplier  or  potato 
onions  are  similarly  managed. 

Varieties.—  Prizetaker  is  probably  the  most  popular  va- 
riety of  the  present  day.  Yellow  Globe  Danvers  is  also  a 
favorite.  The  Wethersfield  Red  is  the  type  of  red- 
bulbed  sorts,  and  the  Silver -Skin  the  most  popular  white 
variety.  Varieties  variously  known  as  "Spanish,"  "Italian," 
" Bermuda,"  or  "European"  onions  are  often  grown, 
particularly  in  the  South  and  in  California.  Large  White 
Italian  Tripoli,  Red  Italian  Tripoli  and  Giant  Rocca  are 
representatives  of  this  class.  (Consult  T.  Greiner,  "New 
Onion  Culture,"  and  "Onions  for  Profit;"  Watts,  "Onion 
Culture,"  Farmers'  Bull.  39,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. ;  W.  J. 
Green,  Ohio  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Vol.  Ill,  No.  9,  2d  Ser.,  and 
N.  Y.  State  Exp.  Sta.  Rpt.  1888,  p.  190.) 

CHIVES  are  propagated  by  division.  Secure  some  of  the 
divided  plants,  set  them  in  a  corner  of  the  garden,  and  go 
to  them  when  onion  flavoring  is  wanted.  The  plants  are 
vigorous,  and  will  care  for  themselves  if  not  choked  out 
by  weeds.  Chives  are  perennials,  and  last  for  years. 

LEEK  may  be  grown  in  the  same  way  as  onions.  If 
long  white  stems  are  wanted  for  eating  raw,  the  plants 
should  be  blanched  by  deep  planting  and  subsequent  em- 
banking, something  after  the  manner  of  treating  celery. 

3.     Leguminous  Group— Beans  and  Peas 

STRING  BEANS  are  among  the  most  popular  of  early  spring 
vegetables.  Their  value  depends  largely  on  having  them 
early,  and  for  this  reason  they  should  De  sown  as  soon  as 
there  is  a  reasonable  probability  of  immunity  from  frost. 
Sow  every  two  weeks  thereafter  for  general  use.  For  the 
earliest  crops  sandy  soil  and  a  southern  exposure  should 
be  sought.  The  soil  should  be  well  prepared  and  well 
fertilized.  It  is  useless  to  try  to  force  early  vegetables 


362  THE    VEGETABLE    GARDEN 

on  a  soil  which  compels  plants  to  forage  far  and  wide 
for  a  bare  living.  It  is  also  evident  that  only  the 
most  soluble  fertilizers  should  be  used.  The  seed  should 
be  put  in  drills  three  and  one -half  feet  apart  if  room 
can  be  afforded  to  work  the  ground  with  the  horse,  or 
the  drills  may  be  eight  or  nine  inches  apart  iii^a  bed 
if  space  is  very  limited.  In  the  latter  case,  an  abun- 
dance of  water  and  manure  is  indispensable.  Care  should 
be  taken,  especially  when  rows  are  near  together,  not 
to  sow  too  thick  in  the  drills.  One  strong  plant 
every  four  inches  is  better  than  three  weak  ones  in 
the  same  row.  If  the  ground  is  in  good  condition, 
without  lumps,  cultivation  can  be  done  with  a  horse 
cultivator,  the  wheel -hoe  and  the  hand  hoe.  There  is 
a  grave  mistake  somewhere  when  beans  or  peas  have 
to  be  weeded  by  hand. 

Beans  should  not  be  planted  too  deep,  or  the  grow- 
ing top  of  the  germinating  plantlets  will  be  torn  off 
as  they  are  pushed  through  the  ground.  Cover  one  and 
one -half  to  two  inches.  All  varieties  which  are  to  be  used 
green  should  be  scrupulously  picked  as  soon  as  fit  to 
eat.  If  allowed  to  ripen  they  stop  growth  and  produc- 
tion on  the  bearing  plants. 

Probably  the  worst  disease  of  string  beans  is  the  bean 
anthracnose,  which  causes  brownish  or  reddish  pitted  spots 
upon  the  pods,  spoiling  their  appearance  and  diminish- 
ing the  yield.  This  may  be  successfully  treated  by 
soaking  the  seed  for  an  hour  before  planting  in  a  so- 
lution of  three  ounces  of  copper  carbonate  and  one  quart 
of  ammonia  to  four  and  one -half  gallons  of  water. 

The  bean  weevil  is  often  a  serious  enemy  in  dry  beans. 
Its  ravages  may  be  somewhat  controlled  by  killing  the 
insects  in  seed  beans,  either  by  subjecting  them  to  a 
temperature  of  145°  F.  for  an  hour  as  soon  as  gathered, 
or  by  treating  with  carbon  bi-sulfid  in  a  closed  vessel. 

Varieties  of  String   Beans.— The    German   Black   Wax   is 


BEANS    AND    PEAS  363 

the  type  of  most  of  the  yellow -podded  varieties  and 
the  progenitor  of  many;  but  the  newer  and  more  care- 
fully selected  sorts  are  likely  to  prove  best  in  most 
situations.  Of  these  Golden  Wax,  Flageolet  Wax,  Yo- 
semite  Mammoth  Wax,  Valentine  Wax  and  Refugee 
Wax  are  best  known.  Green -podded  snap  beans  are 
not  so  popular,  but  find  fair  sale  in  some  markets. 
Of  these  Early  Red  Valentine,  Extra  Early  Refugee  and 
Long  Yellow  Six  Weeks  are  very  good. 

Shell  Beans. — The  varieties  most  commonly  grown  for 
dry  shelled  beans  are  White  Marrowfat,  Boston  Pea,  and 
White  Valentine. 

THE  POLE  LIMAS  are  very  successful  in  certain  lo^ 
calities",  especially  southward.  Standard  varieties  are  Early 
Jersey,  Dreer's  Improved,  King  of  the  Garden,  Ford's 
Mammoth,  and  the  Sievas. 

THE  DWARF  LIMAS  are  of  two  general  types,  Bur- 
pee's Bush  Lima  being  the  best  known  large  sort  used 
shelled  and  green,  and  Henderson's  Dwarf  Lima  being 
the  commonest  type  of  the  small  lima  used  green  or 
dry.  (Consult  Bailey,  Cornell  Exp.  Sta.  Bulletins  87  and 
115.;  also  N.  Y.,  State  Exp.  Sta.  Rpt.  1883,  p.  235,  and 
Kans.  Exp.  Sta.  Rpt.  1889,  p.  133.) 

PEAS.  Sow  the  same  as  beans,  except  that  they  may 
be  planted  in  earliest  spring,  even  before  frosts  have 
passed. 

The  most  serious  pests  attacking  garden  peas  are  the 
mildew  and  the  pea  weevil.  The  former  can  be  treated 
with  some  success  by  spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixture. 
The  weevil  may  be  killed  by  the  same  means  suggested 
for  the  bean  weevil. 

Specially  selected  extra  early  varieties  are  offered  in 
every  seed  catalogue.  For  the  most  part  such  sorts  are 
good.  Peas  grown  carelessly  in  the  garden  for  a  few 
years  deteriorate  greatly,  and  are  not  worth  planting. 
Extra  early  varieties  of  merit  are  Alaska,  Nott's  Excel- 


364  THE    VEGETABLE    GARDEN 

sior,  American  Wonder,  Little  Gem,  and  Premium  Gem. 
Second  early  varieties  of  general  adaptability  are  Abun- 
dance, Advancer,  Heroine,  and  Horsford's  Market  Garden. 
Late  sorts  and  the  so-called  edible -podded  sugar  peas 
are  of  very  limited  utility  in  amateur  gardens.  The 
tall  or  standard  sorts  should  be  allowed  to  climb  on 
brush  or  chicken  wire.  The  half -standards  and  dwarfs 
may  be  planted  in  double  rows,  so  that  the  plants  tend 
to  hold  each  other  up. 

4.     Brassicaceous    Group — Cabbage,    Eale,    Cauliflower,    etc. 

In  the  northern  states,  these  plants  will  all  do  best 
when  started  early  in  hotbed,  frame,  or  greenhouse, 
—from  the  last  of  February  to  April— and  transplanted  to 
the  open  ground  May  first  to  June  first.  Still,  some  per- 
sons are  successful  in  growing  late  cabbage,  kale,  etc., 
by  sowing  the  seeds  in  hills  in  the  open  ground  where 
the  plants  are  to  mature.  It  is  best  to  transplant  the 
young  plantlets  twice,  first  from  the  seed-bed  to  boxes, 
or  frames,  about  the  time  the  second  set  of  true  leaves 
appears,  placing  the  plants  twenty-four  inches  apart  each 
way,  and  transplanting  again  to  the  open  ground  in 
rows  four  to  five  feet  apart,  with  plants  two  to  four 
feet  apart  in  the  row.  If  the  plants  are  started  under 
cover  they  should  be  hardened  off  by  exposure  to  light 
and  air  during  the  warmer  hours  of  several  days  pre- 
ceding the  final  transplanting. 

The  most  serious  enemy  of  cabbage -like  plants  is  the 
root-maggot.  See  discussion  of  this  insect  on  page  96, 
Fig.  96. 

The  cabbage -worm  (larva  of  the  white  butterfly  shown 
in  Fig.  240)  can  be  despatched  with  pyrethrum  or  kero- 
sene emulsion.  It  must  be  treated  very  early,  before 
worm  gets  far  into  the  head. 

The    club-root    or    stump-root,    is    a    fungous    disease, 


CABBAGES  365 

for  which   there    is   no    good   remedy.     Use    new  land,  if 
the   disease    is    present. 

CABBAGES.  Early  Jersey  Wakefield,  Early  York  and 
Early  French  Oxheart  are  best  among  extra  early  va- 
rieties. For  a  medium  early  crop,  Winnigstadt,  All 
Seasons,  Succession,  All  Head,  and  Large  Jersey  Wake- 
field  are  all  good.  For  late  crop,  Danish  Ball  Head, 
Late  Flat  Dutch  and  Large  Late  Drummond  are  valu- 
able. Early  Ked  Dutch  Erfurt,  Red  Dutch  Drumhead 


240.    Cabbage  butterfly  (female),  parent  of  the  cabbage-worm. 

and  Mammoth  Rock  Red,  are  good  red  cabbages.  Among 
the  Savoys  one  might  choose  Perfection  Drumhead,  Early 
Ulm,  and  Extra  Early  Paris,  with  a  preference  for 
the  earlier  sorts. 

There  are  many  ways  of  storing  cabbages  for  winter 
and  spring  use,  none  of  which  are  uniformly  success- 
ful. Upon  this  point  T.  Greiner  writes  as  follows:  "I 
have  heretofore  piled  a  lot  of  cabbages  cut  from  the 
stump  in  a  conical  heap  in  the  field,  and  covered  them 
with  clusters  .of  the  outer  leaves  cut  off  with  a  piece 
of  the  stump.  The  leaves  are  carefully  placed  over  the 
heap  in  shingle  fashion,  so  as  to  shed  water.  Cab- 
bages thus  piled  and  covered  may.  be  left  out  until 
real-  winter  weather  sets  in.  But  I  find  that  slugs  and 
earthworms  frequently  infest  the  cabbages  thus  stored, 
and  do  a  good  deal  of  damage.  It  might  be  well  to 


366 


THE     VEGETABLE     GARDEN 


place    a    solid    floor    of    lime    or    salt    upon    the    ground, 
and    then    pack    the    cabbages    upon   this.     If    to    be    left 


V^    Wfc    - 


241.    Suggestion  for  storing  cabbages. 


out  after  severe  freezing  has  set  in,  one  should  put 
additional  covering,  such  as  straw,  corn-stalks  or  marsh 
hay,  over  the  whole  heap.  Mr.  Burpee's  little  book, 
'Cabbage  and  Cauliflower  for  Profit,'  written  by  the 


CABBAGES    AND    CAULIFLOWERS 


367 


noted  cabbage -grower,  J.  M.  Lupton,  suggests  the 
following  plan  for  early  winter  sales:  'Take  the  cab- 
bages up  with  the  roots  on,  and  store  in  well-venti- 
lated cellars,  where  they  will  keep  till  mid-winter.  Or 
stack  them  in  some  sheltered  position  about  the  barn, 
placing  one  above  the  other  in  tiers,  with  the  roots 
inside,  and  covering  deeply  with  seaweed ;  or  if  this 
cannot  be  obtained,  something  like  corn- stalks  may  be 
used  to  keep  them  from  the  weather  as  much  as  possi- 


242.    A  good  cauliflower  head.    Leaves  trimmed  off. 

ble  (Fig.  241).  When  thus  stored,  they  may  be  ob- 
tained any  time  during  the  winter  when  prices  are 
favorable.'  " 

CAULIFLOWERS,  more  imperatively  than  cabbages,  de- 
mand plenty  of  water  and  weather  not  too  hot.  When 
they  begin  to  head,  the  large  leaves  should  be  bent  over 
the  inner  part  to  whiten  it.  The  earliest  varieties  may 
often  be  grown  in  localities  where  cauliflowers  succeed 
only  with  difficulty.  Extra-early  Paris,  Extra-early 


368 


THE    VEGETABLE    GARDEN 


243.     A  yood  plaiit  of  Brussels  Sprouts. 

Dwarf  Erfurt,  and  Early  Snowball  (Fig.  242),  are  good 
early  varieties.  For  late  planting,  choose  Autumn  Giant 
and  Lenormand  Short  Stem. 

BROCCOLI  is  in  some  respects  superior  to  cauliflower, 
which  it  very  much  resembles.  The  early  varieties  with- 
stand drought  and  ill  usage  better  than  cauliflower,  and 


CABBAGE -LIKE  PLANTS          369 

are,  on  that  account,  easier  for  the  amateur  to  grow. 
Purple  Cape  is  the  hardiest  variety,  and  has  the  best 
flavor  when  cooked,  being  much  finer  than  cauliflower, 
but  its  color  is  a  drawback.  The  large  late  varieties, 
and  especially  those  of  a  biennial  nature,  may  be  avoided. 
Cultivate  in  all  respects  like  cabbage. 

BRUSSELS  SPROUTS  may  also  be  cultivated  exactly  like 
cabbage.  As  nearly  all  varieties  are  for  late  use,  and 
are  better  after  having  been  touched  by  frost,  they  may 
be  handled  with  the  crop  of  late  cabbage  or  with  kale. 
Paris  Market  is  the  best  standard  variety.  Fig.  243  shows 
a  plant  well  furnished  with  the  little  heads,  each  an  inch 
or  two  in  diameter. 

KALE  is  also  best  for  use  after  frost,  or  even  when 
kept  into  the  winter  or  till  spring.  It  may  thus  come  in 
with  the  later  crop  of  cabbage, 
being  handled  in  exactly  the 
same  way.  Dwarf  Curled  and 
Tall  Curled  will  please  most 
people  best.  Kale  produces 
no  dense  head.  The  plant  is 
used  for  "greens." 

COLLARDS.     This  is  a  south- 
ern  development    of    the    kale 

type,  which  is  suitable  to  warmer  <2M-  A  good  trellis  for  tomatoes, 

holding  the  vines  apart  and 
climates    and    longer    seasons.         allowing  all  fruits  to  receive 

It    is    ranker    in    growth    and        air  and  light- 
coarser   in   foliage  than  the  common  kales.      It  is  treated 
precisely  like  cabbage    or    kale.     Georgia    Collards  is   the 
variety  mostly  grown. 

5.     Solanaceous    Groups— Tomato,    Eggplant,    etc. 

These  vegetables  are  all  natives  of  southern  zones,  and 
have  not  yet  become  so  far  acclimatized  in  the  North  as 
not  to  need  the  benefit  of  our  longest  seasons.  Plants 


370 


THE    VEGETABLE     GARDEN 


245.    Same  variety  of  tomatoes   grown  on  dry  and   good   soil.     On  the 

former  (upper  cut)  there  was  not  sufficient  moisture  to  cause 

the  fruit  to  fill  out,  and  "rough"  tomatoes  were  the  result. 

should  be  started  early,  about  March  1,  under  glass.  They 
should  be  "  pricked  off,"  when  the  second  leaves  appear, 
three  or  four  inches  apart,  into  flats  or  boxes.  These 
boxes  should  be  kept  in  a  coldframe,  to  which  an  abun- 
dance of  light  and  air  is  admitted  on  warm,  sunny  days, 


TOMATOES    AND    EGGPLANTS  371 

in  order  to  harden  them  off.  After  all  danger  of  frost  is 
past,  and  the  garden  soil  is  well  warmed,  the  plants  may 
be  finally  transplanted. 

TOMATO  plants  should  set  two  or  four  feet  apart,  ac- 
cording to  training,  in  rows  six  feet  apart.  Elaborate 
systems  of  training  are  often  discussed  and  illustrated, 
but  the  simplest  device  which  will  hold  the  plants  partly 
off  the  ground  is  all  that  can  be  recommended  to  the 
beginner.  Very  moderate  pruning  will  sometimes  succeed, 
but  systems  of  close  pruning  are  to  be  adopted  in  garden 
practice  with  caution. 

There  are  four  distinct  classes  of  tomatoes,  classified 
on  the  basis  of  color  of  the  ripe  fruit,  viz. :  Reds,  pinks, 
whites  or  creamy  yellows,  and  bright  yellows.  The 
yellows  are  of  little  value.  The  creamy  yellows,  like 
Golden  Queen,  are  very  good  dessert  fruits.  The  varie- 
ties yielding  dark  red  fruits  are  most  popular.  Of  these 
Matchless,  Stone  and  Perfection  may  be  safely  recom- 
mended, though  there  are  many  others  of  value.  The 
pink  varieties  are  typified  by  Beauty,  and  by  Dwarf 
Champion,  which  is  a  plant  of  odd,  dwarf  habit,  and  well 
suited  to  very  small  home  gardens.  The  Cherry  and  Pear 
tomatoes  are  often  grown  for  preserving.  (Consult  Bailey, 
Cornell  Bull.  32,  and  other  writings.) 

THE  HUSK  TOMATOES  (Physolis)  sometimes  offered  in  the 
catalogues  on  account  of  their  smaller  stature,  may  be 
treated  more  like  peppers. 

EGGPLANTS  are  somewhat  difficult  to  manage  in  the 
North.  It  is  a  prime  necessity  that  the  plants  shall 
be  vigorous  and  healthy  at  the  time  of  transplanting  to 
open  ground.  Set  two  to  three  feet  apart  in  rows  three 
and  one  half  feet  apart,  and  give  plenty  of  fertilizer  and 
cultivation.  New  York  Improved  Large  Purple  is  the 
type  of  variety  chiefly  grown  (Fig.  246),  though  some  of 
the  smaller  white -fruited  sorts  will  doubtless  give  satis- 
faction in  the  home  garden.  The  plants  must  always 


372 


THE    VEGETABLE    GARDEN 


be  started  indoors  or  under  glass  for  the  North.     (Consult 
Bailey,  Cornell  Bull.  26.) 

PEPPERS  may  be  handled  like  eggplants,  although  some 
of  the  earlier  varieties  may  be  grown  from  seed  sown  in 


246.    A  good  specimen  of   eggplant,  ripening  (in  the  North) 
two  or  three  fruits. 

the  open  ground  at  melon -planting  time.  Put  plants  one 
and  one -half  to  two  feet  apart;  rows  three  and  one  half 
feet  apart.  Bull  Nose,  Large  Sweet  Spanish,  Procopp's 
Giant,  Golden  Dawn  and  Euby  King  are  useful  large  va- 


CUCUMBERS    AND    MELONS  373 

rieties  for  stuffing.  Smaller  varieties,  like  Chili,  Bird's 
Eye,  Ked  Cherry  and  Japan  Cluster  furnish  the  most 
pungency  for  seasoning. 

6.  CucurHtaceous    Group — Cucumber,  Melon,  Squash,  etc. 

All  the  members  of  this  group  are  especially  suited  to 
outdoor  culture,  but  they  are  all  very  tender  to  frost. 
Seeds  must  be  planted  somewhat  shallow  from  early  spring 
to  midsummer.  For  the  earliest  cucumbers  and  melons, 
seeds  are  planted  in  frames.  That  is,  each  hill  is  enclosed 
by  a  portable  box  frame  about  three  feet  square  and  usu- 
ally having  a  movable  sash  cover.  The  cover  is  raised  or 
removed  in  warm  days  and  the  frame  bodily  taken  away 
when  all  danger  of  frost  is  past.  In  field  culture,  seeds  are 
planted  an  inch  deep,  four  to  six  in  a  hill,  with  hills  four 
by  six  feet  apart,  these  distances  being  varied  slightly 
according  to  location  and  variety.  Fine  cucumbers  are 
sometimes  grown  in  hills  surrounding  a  barrel  in  which 
manure  is  placed  to  be  leached  out  by  successive  waterings. 

The  omnipresent  enemies  of  all  the  cucurbitaceous  crops 
are  the  little  cucumber  beetle  and  the  large  black  "stink 
bug."  Ashes,  lime,  or  tobacco  dust  occasionally  seem  to 
show  some  efficiency  in  preventing  the  ravages  of  these 
insects,  but  the  only  reasonably  sure  immunity  is  in  the 
use  of  covers  over  the  hills  (Fig.  93).  These  covers  are 
made  by  stretching  mosquito  netting  over  arcs  of  barrel 
hoops  or  bent  wires.  If  by  some  such  means  the  plants 
are  kept  insect -free  till  they  outgrow  the  protection,  they 
will  usually  escape  serious  damage  thereafter. 

CUCUMBERS.  The  most  popular  type  of  this  vegetable  is 
the  White  Spine,  which  has  run  into  many  sub-varieties 
through  diversities  of  cultivation  and  selection.  The  White 
Spine  varieties  are  excellent  for  pickles,  for  slicing,  or 
for  forcing.  For  pickles,  the  smaller  varieties,  such  as 
Wethersfield,  Chicago  Pickle,  Early  Cluster,  Early  Frame, 


374  THE    VEGETABLE    GARDEN 

Parisian  Prolific  Pickle  and  Early  Netted  Russian  are 
best.  For  slicing,  Long  Green  and  Nichol  Medium 
Green  may  be  added  to  White  Spine.  For  use  ripe,  Giant 
Pera  and  Giant  White  are  popular  in  some  places. 

The  Snake  cucumber  makes  good  pickles,  but  is  chiefly 
valuable  as  a  curiosity. 

West  India  Gherkins  (Fig.  247)  are  thrifty  and  prolific, 
and  make  good  pickles  if  cut  young. 

MTJSKMELONS  should  be  grown 
on  warm,  sandy  land.  Soil  and 
location  make  very  much  dif- 
ference with  the  quality.  The 
small  green -fleshed  netted  varie- 
ties, improperly  called  canteloupes 
in  many  parts,  are  the  favorites 
for-  garden  culture.  Of  these, 
Early  Netted  Gem  and  Jenny  Lind 
are  the  standards.  Hackensack  is 

a    large    spherical    melon  of    fine 
247.    West  India  Gherkin. 

quality  for  home  or  market  gar- 
den. The  Montreal  Market  is  still  a  size  larger,  and 
may  be  relied  on  for  yield  and  quality.  Banquet  is  a 
fine,  round,  yellow-fleshed  variety.  Osage  is  an  excellent 
melon  of  high  quality.  There  are  many  other  fine  melons 
offered  in  almost  every  seed  catalogue,  and  nearly  every 
neighborhood  has  some  favorite  local  variety. 

WATERMELONS  are  grown  to  perfection  only  in  the 
South,  but,  South  and  North,  demand  a  warm  soil  and 
exposure.  There  are  several  white  or  yellow -fleshed  va- 
rieties, but  aside  from  their  oddity  of  appearance  they 
have  little  value.  A  good  watermelon  has  a  solid,  bright 
red  flesh,  preferably  with  black  seeds,  and  a  strong  pro- 
tecting rind.  Kolb  Gem,  The  Jones,  Boss,  Cuban  Queen 
and  Dixie  are  the  best  varieties  in  general  cultivation. 

SQUASH.  Most  of  the  squashes  are  especially  liable  to 
the  insect  attacks  mentioned  on  the  last  page.  It  is,  there- 


SQUASHES    AND    PUMPKINS 


375 


fore,  desirable  to  secure  the  most  vigorous  start  possible 
with  the  young  plants.  Among  summer  varieties,  the 
Patty-pan  or  Bush  Scallop,  Red  and  White,  are  well- 
known.  The  Yellow  Bush  Summer  Crookneck  is  one  of 
the  most  desirable  for  cooking.  The  Hubbard  squash  is 
still  the  standard  of  winter  sorts,  followed  by  Marble  - 
head,  Fordhook,  Essex  Hybrid  and  Boston  Marrow. 
Various  Japanese  types  of  squash  (Fig.  248),  are  now 


248.    A  Japanese   squash,  several  types  of  which  are  now  in 
cultivation  in  this  country. 

coming  to  be  popular,  and  many  of  them  are  excellent 
for  both  fall  and  winter  use. 

PUMPKINS.  The  old-fashioned  yellow  Connecticut  Field 
pumpkin,  which  furnishes  the  basis  of  the  New  England 
pumpkin  pie,  has  never  been  superseded  in  its  own 
important  line.  The  Quaker  Pie  pumpkin  and  certain 
varieties  of  so-called  "sweet  pumpkins"  have  mostly  a 
local  reputation  and  distribution. 

LUFFA.      The    "Dishcloth     Gourd"    or    the    "Vegetable 


376  THE    VEGETABLE    GARDEN 

Sponge"  is  a  eucurbitaceous  fruit  (Fig.  249),  seeds  of 
which  are  now  commonly  sold  by  seedsmen.  The  fibrous 
interior  of  the  mature  fruit  is  dried  and  used  as  a  sponge. 

7.     Salad    Plants    and    Pot-herbs. 

These  plants  are  all  grown  for  their  tender,  fresh,  suc- 
culent leaves.  It  is,  therefore,  manifestly  expedient  that 
they  be  grown  in  warm,  mellow  ground,  well  cultivated 
and  copiously  watered.  Such  small  plants  as  cress,  corn 
salad  and  parsley  can  be  grown  in  small  beds,  or  even 


249.    Luffa,  or  Dishcloth  Gourd. 


in  boxes  or  pots;  but  in  a  garden  where  space  is  not 
too  scant,  they  may  be  more  conveniently  managed  in 
rows,  like  peas  or  beets.  This  remark  applies  to  all  gar- 
den crops.  Nearly  all  the  salad  plants  may  be  sown  in 
the  spring,  and  from  time  to  time  throughout  the  summer 
for  succession.  (Consult  Waugh,  Vermont  Exp.  Sta. 
Bull.  54.) 

LETTUCE  is  a  typical  salad  plant,  and,  unfortunately, 
the  only  one  well  known  in  America.  Seeds  may  be  sown 
early  in  drills,  the  rows  being  three  to  three  and  one  half 
feet  apart  in  the  garden,  or  fourteen  inches  apart  in  the 
bed.  Several  successive  sowings  should  always  be  made, 


LETTUCE    AND    CRESS 


377 


for  lettuce  rapidly  loses  its  freshness  and  crispness. 
Golden  Queen  is  a  desirable  early  light- colored  variety. 
Boston  Market  is  a  favorite  with  many.  Tennisball, 
Black -seeded  Simpson  and  Hanson  are  widely  known. 
New  York  is  a  fine,  strong -growing  variety.  Of  the  Cos 


isisiiii*^ 

250.    Endive  tied  up  for  blanching. 


varieties,  Trianon  and  Paris  White  Cos  are  best.  These 
are  often  blanched  for  market  by  earthing  up  about  the 
plants  when  they  begin  to  head. 

CRESS  is  a  name  which  applies  to  several  very  diverse 
species  of  plants.  The  best  for  garden  culture  are  Au- 
stralian or  Golden  Cress,  or  Extra  Curled,  or  American 
Curled.  These  grow  rapidly,  and  are  very  fine.  Upland 
cress  is  a  different  plant,  resembling  water  cress  in  taste. 
Water  cress  may  be  easily  grown  almost  anywhere  that 
living,  shallow  water  is  at  command.  The  garden  varie- 
ties are  sown  in  shallow  drills,  as  already  directed  above. 


378  THE     VEGETABLE    GARDEN 

CORN  SALAD  is  less  pungent  than  cress,  but  will  not 
prove  so  generally  useful.  It  is  cultivated  precisely  like 
cress.  Only  one  variety  is  offered  by  American  seeds- 
men. 

ENDIVE  may  be  grown  at  almost  any  season  of  the  year, 
from  early  spring  to  late  fall.  In  mild  climates  it  may 
also  be  sown  in  the  fall,  covered  during  winter,  and 
harvested  at  the  first  opening  of  spring.  Sow  in  drills, 
as  directed  for  cress.  The  plants  are  best  blanched.  This 
is  done  by  tying  up  the  outer  leaves  on  a  bright,  clear 
day  (Fig.  250),  or  by  covering  the  row  with  an  inverted 
trough  of  boards,  like  a  V  upside  down.  It  is  then  best 
to  throw  some  earth  against  the  trough  to  keep  it  cool. 
For  winter  use,  plants  may  be  taken  out  of  the  rows 
in  fall,  with  a  large  ball  of  soil  upon  the  roots,  and 
stored  in  a  cellar,  or  in  a  tight  coldframe  till  wanted. 
White  Curled  is  the  best  variety.  Green  Curled  is  hardier, 
but  more  refractory  in  blanching. 

CHICORY  is  cultivated  like  endive,  except  that  it  is 
not  so  good  for  successional  sowings,  but  is  better  for 
fall  sowing  and  spring  use.  The  plants  are  grown  in 
drills,  and  when  blanched  like  endive,  make  a  delecta- 
able  salad.  The  Large -rooted  is  the  variety  chiefly 
grown  in  America,  the  roots  being  used  as  a  substitute 
for  coffee. 

DANDELION,  when  grown  and  blanched  like  endive  or 
chicory,  makes  a  very  acceptable  salad.  It  is  more  often 
used,  however,  as  a  pot-herb,  that  is,  for  "greens." 
To  secure  it  early  in  the  spring  for  this  purpose,  fall 
planting  is  necessary.  The  plants  are  then  covered  with 
a  clean  mulch,  which  is  removed  at  the  earliest  possi- 
ble moment  in  spring.  It  is  worth  while  to  sow  selected 
seed.  The  Improved  Large-leaved  is  a  good  variety. 

SPINACH  is  more  commonly  grown  for  a  pot-herb 
than  any  other  plant.  For  early  use  it  should  be  sown 
in  the  fall,  and  the  plants  wintered  under  a  clean  mulch, 


SPINACH,     AND    THE    LIKE 


379 


which  is  removed  as  early  as  possible  in  spring.  But 
it  may  be  sown  early  in  spring  and  in  succession 
through  the  summer.  Norfolk  Savoy -leaved,  Large 
Bound -leaved  Viroflay  and  Prickly  are  good  varieties. 
Victoria  is  a  recent  novelty 
of  real  merit.  New  Zealand 
is  a  very  different  plant; 
and  though  not  so  valuable 
as  the  true  spinach,  adds 
pleasing  diversity  to  the 
garden.  (Consult  Kinney, 
E.  I.  Exp.  Sta.-  Bull.  41.) 

MUSTARD.  Almost  all  the 
mustards  are  good  for  greens, 
though  white  mustard  is  usu- 
ally best.  Chinese  mustard 
is  also  valuable.  They  should 
be  sown  in  drills,  three  to 
three  and  one -half  feet  apart 
and  covered  with  a  half  inch 
of  soil.  The  ease  with  which 
they  may  be  grown,  and  the 
abundance  of  herbage  which 
they  yield,  mark  their  special 
utility.  (Consult  Bailey, 
Cornell  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  67.) 

CHARD,  OR  Swiss  CHARD, 
is  simply  a  development  of 
the  beet  species  character- 
ized by  large,  succulent  leaf- 
stalks instead  of  enlarged  roots.  The  leaves  are  very 
tender  and  make  "greens"  much  like  young  beets. 
They  are  cultivated  exactly  like  beets.  Only  one  variety 
is  offered  by  most  seedsmen  in  this  country,  though  in 
France  and  Germany  several  varieties  are  grown  (Fig.  251) . 

SORREL  may  be  sown  in  spring,  in  drills  sixteen  inches 


251.    Swiss  chard. 


380   '  THE    VEGETABLE    GARDEN 

apart  in  beds,  or  three  to  three  and  one  half  feet  apart 
in  rows.  After  the  plants  are  well  established  they 
should  be  thinned  to  ten  to  twelve  inches  apart  in  the 
rows.  They  are  perennial,  and  may  be  kept  growing  in 
the  same  place  for  several  years.  Broad -leaved  French 
is  the  most  popular  variety. 

PARSLEY.  Sow  very  early  in  the  spring,  in  shallow 
drills  fourteen  inches  apart,  and  thin  out  to  six  inches 
apart  in  the  rows.  For  very  early  spring  use,  seed  may 
be  sown  in  the  fall  and  the  plants  wintered  under  a  light 
mulch..  Extra  Dark  Moss  Curled  and  Dwarf  Extra  Curled 
are  desirable  varieties,  though  any  others  will  be  found 
satisfactory. 

RHUBARB,  while,  strictly  speaking,  neither  a  salad 
plant  nor  a  pot-herb,  should  be  mentioned  here.  It  may 
be  grown  from  seed  by  sowing  early  in  spring  in  fine, 
warm  soil.  But  the  best  way  to  start  it  in  a  family  gar- 
den is  from  the  divided  roots.  These  may  be  set  two  by 
three  feet  apart,  in  a  corner  of  the  garden,  where  they 
may  remain  undisturbed  for  several  years.  Victoria  is 
perhaps  the  best  named  variety. 

8.    Miscellaneous     Vegetables 

CELERY  is  by  no  means  so  difficult  to  grow  as  many 
people  think.  The  seeds  should  be  sown  early  by  sprink- 
ling them  thinly  on  top  of  a  pot,  pan  or  box  of  good, 
fine  soil,  and  sifting  a  very  little  earth  over  them.  Put 
them  in  a  moderately  warm  room,  greenhouse  or  hotbed 
to  germinate.  About  the  time  the  second  leaves  put  out 
the  plants  should  be  "pricked  off"  into  flats  or  boxes, 
being  set  about  one  and  one -half  to  two  inches  apart. 
As  the  young  plantlets  begin  to  grow  they  should  be 
"hardened -off"  by  uncovering  the  hotbed  during  the 
day,  or  otherwise  exposing  the  plants  to  sun  and  air. 
After  the  plants  have  made  a  growth  of  four  to  six 


CELERY 


381 


inches,  after  the  weather  is  bright  and  warm,  in  May 
or  June,  and  after  the  soil  has  been  thoroughly  pre- 
pared, the  ground  may  be  marked  off  for  rows  three  to 
four  feet  apart,  and  the  plants  set  five  inches  apart  in 
the  row.  They  need  to  be  liberally  watered  and  fertilized, 
but  fermenting  manures  must  be  avoided.  The  rows  also 
need  the  most  careful  weeding  and  hoeing,  especially  at 
first. 

When  the  plants  are  nearly  full  grown,  the  blanch- 
ing may  be  begun.  The  older  method  consists  in  drawing 
up  a  quantity  of  loose  soil  about  the 
plants,  holding  each  one  in  the  hand 
as  it  is  embanked,  and  being  careful 
to  keep  the  earth  from  falling  into 
the  celery  head.  A  more  modern 
way  is  to  set  up  boards  on  either  side 
of  the  row,  fastening  them  in  place 
so  as  to  keep  out  the  sunshine.  With 
the  self-blanching  sorts,  which  are 
now  mostly  grown,  this  method  is 
easy  of  practice.  Another  method 
consists  ,in  setting  plants  of  self- 
blanching  varieties  eight  or  ten  252.  Storing  celery 
inches  apart  each  way  in  solid  blocks,  in  a  trench- 

fertilizing  and  watering  heavily,  and  depending  upon 
the  shading  of  the  crowded  plants  to  do  the  necessary 
blanching. 

Varieties  most  popular  are  White  Plume,  Pink  Plume, 
Golden  Self-blanching,  Giant  Pascal  and  Golden  Heart. 
(Consult  Greiner's  "Celery  for  Profit,"  and  Kinney's 
Bulletin  44,  Rhode  Island  Experiment  Station.) 

There  are  various  methods  of  storing  celery.  (Consult 
Horticulturist's  Rule-Book,  4th  ed.,  and  Bulletins,  Cornell 
Exp.  Sta.)  It  may  be  taken  up  in  late  fall  and  planted 
close  together  in  trenches  (Fig.  252),  and  then  covered 
with  boards;  or  wider  trenches  or  pits  may  be  made, 


382  THE    VEGETABLE    GARDEN 

and  a  temporary  shed  constructed  over  the  transplanted 
plants  (Fig.  253). 

CELERIAC,  which  is  occasionally  grown  for  home  use, 
may  be  cultivated  in  the  same  way  as  celery,  except 
that  it  does  not  need  blanching.  It  is  usually  earthed 
up  slightly,  however,  some  time  before  harvesting.  The 
edible  portion  is  the  turnip-like  root  (Fig.  254). 

ASPARAGUS  plants  may  be  grown  from  seed,  but  it  is 
easier*  and  cheaper  to  buy  them  for  small  gardens. 
Good  strong  two  or  three-year-old  plants  should  be  set 
in  wide  open  furrows  six  inches  deep,  three  feet  apart 
in  the  rows,  with  rows  five  feet  apart.  The  furrows  are 


253.    Storing  celery  in  a  pit. 

then  filled  in  slowly  during  summer  cultivation,  till  the 
surface  is  entirely  level.  For  the  first  two  or  three 
years,  and  occasionally  thereafter,  a  heavy  dressing  of 
well -rotted  manure  should  be  worked  into  the  surface 
in  spring.  Dressings  with  salt  are  often  advised,  but 
their  value  has  not  been  fully  ascertained. 

It  is  not  advisable  to  cut  the  bed  until  the  plants  are 
three  years  set,  and  the  cutting  should  always  cease  in 
June  or  by  the  first  of  July. 

In   the   fall  all   the  old  canes  should   be    cut  back   and 


ASPARAGUS— CORN 


383 


burned.  There  is  no  great  difference  among  varieties, 
but  some  of  the  newer  ones,  like  Columbian  Mammoth 
White  or  Barr  Mammoth,  have  the  presumption  in  their 
favor. 

In  cutting  asparagus,  the  knife  should  be  inserted  ver- 
tically (A,  Fig.  255),  so    that  the  crowns  will  not  be  cut 


254.    Celeriac. 

or  injured.     In  the   position   B,    the   knife   may   do   much 
mischief. 

SWEET  CORN.  Plant  early  sweet  corn  five  or  six  grains 
to  the  hill,  hills  three  feet  apart,  rows  three  and  one- 
half  to  four  feet  apart,  as  soon  as  danger  of  frost  is 
over.  Cover  and  press  down  solidly  with  the  hoe.  Cory 
Early,  Early  Minnesota  and  Crosby  Early  are  among  the 


384 


THE    VEGETABLE    GARDEN 


first  to  give  good  eatable  ears.  For  the  main  crop, 
Stowell  Evergreen,  Ne  Plus  Ultra  and  Country  Gentle- 
man may  be  relied  upon. 

OKRA,  OR  GUMBO.  This  delicious  esculent  thrives  in 
heat  and  drought,  but  is  more  difficult  to  grow  in  the 
cooler,  moister  seasons  of  our  northeastern  states.  It 
has  the  same  geographical  adaptations  as  the  watermelon. 
Sow  the  seed  in  drills  at  corn-planting  time,  in  rows 
three  and  one-half  feet  apart,  covering  to  a  depth  of  one 
inch  and  pressing  down  the  soil  firmly.  Thin  the  plants  out 


255.    Good  and  poor  methods  of  cutting  asparagus. 

to  a  foot  or  eighteen  inches  in  the  row.  Cut  the  edible 
pods  before  they  get  stringy.  White  Velvet  is  the  most 
desirable  variety. 

MARTYNIA.  Seed  may  be  planted  in  late  spring  in  hills 
three  feet  apart  and  rows  three  and  one -half  feet  apart. 
Cultivate  like  tomatoes.  The  pods  for  pickling  should 
be  cut  when  quite  small. 

ARTICHOKES  have  never  become  so  popular  in  this 
country  as  to  have  produced  a  long  list  of  varieties. 
Large  Green  Glob^  is  most  commonly  offered  by  seeds- 
men. The  plant  is  allied  to  the  thistles,  arid  the  edible 


ARTICHOKE— SWEET    HERBS  385 

part  is  the  great  unopened  flower-head.  It  is  perennial, 
and  may  be  propagated  by  suckers,  but  it  is  also  grown 
from  seed.  Sow  the  seed  in  beds  and  the  second  spring 
transplant  the  seedlings  to  permanent  quarters,  letting 
them  stand  in  hills  three  to  four  feet  apart  each  way, 
with  three  or  four  plants  in  a  hill. 

The  Jerusalem  artichoke  is  a  subterranean  tuber,  and 
is  most  grown  for  pig  forage. 

9.     Siveet    Herbs 

Every  family  garden  should  have  a  border  permanently 
set  aside  for  sweet  herbs.  A  strip  of  land  four  feet  wide 
and  fifty  feet  long  will  ordinarily  be  ample,  allowing  the 
growing  of  squares  or  clumps  of  all  the  leading  kinds 
of  sweet,  aromatic  and  condimental  plants.  One  end  or 
section  of  the  border  should  be  reserved  for  the  peren- 
nial species,  and  the  remainder  for  the  annuals  (those 
that  must  be  re -sown  each  year). 

The  perennial  sweet  herbs  may  be  propagated  by 
division,  although  they  are  usually  grown  from  seeds. 
The  second  year— and  sometimes  even  the  first  year— the 
plants  are  strong  enough  for  cutting.  Even  with  the 
perennial  kinds,  it  is  advisable  to  renew  or  re -sow  the 
plants  every  few  years,  to  prevent  the  beds  from  run- 
ning out.  The  common  perennial  sweet  herbs  are:  Sage, 
lavender,  peppermint,  spearmint,  hyssop,  thyme,  marjoram, 
balm,  catnip,  rosemary,  horehound,  fennel,  lovage,  winter 
savory,  tansy,  wormwood,  costmary. 

The  commoner  annual  species  (or  those  which  are 
treated  as  annuals)  are:  Anise,  sweet  basil,  summer 
savory,  coriander,  pennyroyal,  caraway  (biennial),  clary 
(biennial),  dill  (biennial),  sweet  marjoram  (biennial). 


SECTION   VI 


SEASONAL   REMINDERS 

Although  seasons  and  conditions  vary  so  much 
m  different  years  and  different  places  that  no 
hard  and  fast  advice  can  be  given  for  the  per- 
forming of  gardening  operations,  yet  brief  hints 
for  the  proper  work  of  the  various  months  may 
be  useful  as  suggestions  and  reminders.  Most  of 
the  older  gardening  books  were  arranged  wholly 
on  the  calendar  method, — giving  specific  direc- 
tions for  each  month  in  the  year.  We  have  now 
accumulated  sufficient  fact  and  experience,  how- 
ever, to  enable  us  to  state  principles  ;  and  these 
principles  can  be  applied  anywhere, — when  sup- 
plemented by  good  judgment, — whereas  mere 
rules  are  arbitrary  and  generally  useless  for  any 
other  condition  than  that  for  which  they  were 
specifically  made. 

The  plan  ting -table  on  page  387  is  reprinted,  by 
permission,  from  "American  Gardening,"  Febru- 
ary 22,  1896.  It  presents  much  advice  in  small 
space. 

The  Monthly  Calendars  are  compiled  from  files 
of  the  "American  Garden"  of  some  years  back, 

(386) 


KITCHEN -GARDEN   PLANTING   TABLE 


GUIDE  TO  THE    PROPER   TIMES  FOR   SOWING   OF   VARIOUS 
SEEDS  IN  ORDER  TO   OBTAIN  CONTINUOUS 
SUCCESSION  OF   CROPS 


VEGETABLES 

t 

1 

5 

| 

| 

| 

Explanation  of  Signs  Used 

KITCHEN  HARDEN 

I 

| 

I 

I 

1 

i 

i 

| 

! 

1 

| 

I 

In  the  Table. 

Artichoke,  American 

• 

• 

.  . 

•  To  be  aown  In  open  ground 

Asparagus  . 

4 

6 

1 

1 

P  Ian  u  have  to  be  thinned  out. 
gi  «en  proper  distance. 

Beans,  Bush     . 
"       PoleandLima 

Beets  

6 

6 

6 
4 

4 

2 

2 

2 

* 

1.  Sow  on  seed  bed  In  the 
garden,  and  transplant  thence 
10  permanent  place. 

Borecole,  Kale     . 
Broccoli  

4 

4 

i 

1 
1 

1 
1 

1 

1-    • 

V 

7 

t.  Make    two    sowings    In 
open     ground     during     the 

Brussels  Sprouts   . 

1 

1 

month. 

Cabbage,  all  tort* 

4 

4 

i 

1 

1 

•    • 

7 

7 

a.  Make  three  sowings  (n 

Cardoon  
Carrot 

4 

4 

i 

1 

1 

open     ground     during     the. 
month. 

Cauliflower 

6 

4 

4 

i 

1 

1 

4.  Start  In  greenhouse  or 

Celeriac  

4 

4 

i 

1 

1 

hot-bed,   and   plant  ont   «> 

Celery     

4 

4 

i 

1 

1 

soon   as   the    ground    Is   In 
rood  shape,  and  weather  per- 

Chicory    

6 

• 

• 

• 

mlta. 

Collards  
Corn,  Field.        .    . 

- 

•0 

- 

• 

• 

• 

B.  Sow  (n  open  ground  •  » 
eoon  as  It  can  be  worked. 

"       Sweet      . 

2 

2 

2 

2 

,) 

6.  To  be  grown  only  In  hot- 

"     Pop    .... 

0 

0 

0 

bed  or  greenhouse. 

"      Salad 
Cress  
Cucumber  ... 

12 

12 

5 
12 

12 

: 

J 

6 

8 
12 
6 

12 

12 

12 

T.  Sow  In  cold  frame,  keep 
plants  there  over  winter  with 
a  little  protection  ;  plant  out 

Egg  Plants  -  .    .    . 
Endive    

1 

i 

1 

i 

Inspring  as  soon  as  the  ground 
can  be  worked. 

Kohlrabi     .... 
Leek  

6 

6 
4 

4 
4 

1 
1 

i 
i 

1 
1 

i 

8.  To   be    sown    la    open 
ground,  sod  protected  with 
litter  over  winter. 

Lettuce   .    .    .    ,   . 
Mangel   
Melon     .    . 

6 
6 

4 
6 

4 
5 
0 

1 
4 

2 

2 

2 

9 

6 

9 

9 

V 

«.  Plant  In  frame.     When 
cold  weather  a»ta  In,  cow 
with  sash  and  straw  mat.. 

Mushroom  .... 
Mustard  

10 

1  Q 

10 

11 
12 

11 

10 

10 

1  O 

10 

10 

1  O 

Plants  will  be  ready  for  uas 

In  December  and  January. 

Nasturtium 

J.J0 

9 

9 

lip 

JLtf 

10.  Plant  la  cellar,  barn  or 

Okra  
Onion  

'4' 

4 
4 

4 

1 

2 

1 

2 

2 

under  benches  In  greenhouse. 
It.  Plant  outdoors  on  pra- 

Parsnips     .        .    . 
Parsley 

5 

'• 

11  Sow  every  week  In  green- 

Peas   

5 

2 

2 

2 

2 

'0 

', 

honss  or  frame,  to  haTsagood 
succession. 

Pepper    .    . 

4 

4 

4 

1 

.       _'. 

Potatoes     .... 
Pumpkin     .... 

4 

— 

N  B  -For  last  planting  of 
Beans.  Sweet  Corn,  Kohlrabi. 

Radish    
Rutabaga    .... 

12 

12 

12 

3 

3 

B 

- 

9 

9 

Peas  and  Radishes,  or  even 
Tomatoes,  take   the  •arlleet 

Salsify     ..... 

5 

• 

« 

a> 

varieties,  jn»t  the  same  as  are 
used  for  first  planting. 

Seakale  ..... 

5 

£ 

Spinach  

5 

9 

2 

Q 

are  Intended  to  remain  undis- 

Squash   ...... 

4 

4 

• 

0 

turbed   orer  winter.     Root* 
from  these  sowings  will,  the 

Turnips  '.'.'.'.'. 

6 

next  year,  attain  a  stas  dou  We 
that  usuall/  sat*. 

256.      Bird's-eye  view  of  the  seasons  in  which  the  various  garden  products 
may  be  in  their  prime     From  "Popular  Gardening." 


ADVICE     FOR    JANUARY  389 

when  the  author  had  editorial  charge  of  that 
magazine.  The  advice  for  the  North  was  written 
by  T.  Greiner,  LaSalle,  N.  Y.,  well  known  as  a 
gardener  and  author.  That  for  the  South  was 
made  by  H.  W.  Smith,  Baton  Rouge,  Louisi- 
ana, for  the  first  nine  months,  and  it  has  been 
extended  for  this  occasion  to  the  months  of 
October,  November  and  December  by  F.  II . 
Burnette,  Horticulturist  of  the  Louisiana  Experi- 
ment Station. 

l.     FOR    THE    NORTH 

JANUARY 

Cabbage  plants  in  frames  need  free  airing  whenever  the 
temperature  is  above  the  freezing  point,  or  so  long  as 
the  soil  of  the  bed  is  not  frozen.  Snow,  in  that  case, 
should  be  removed  soon  after  its  fall.  As  long  as  the 
soil  is  frozen,  the  snow  can  safely  be  left  on  for  a  num- 
ber of  days.  Cabbage,  cauliflower  and  lettuce  seed  should 
be  sown  at  intervals  to  secure  plants  for  extra-early  sales 
or  setting.  A  month  later  they  will  be  ready  to  transfer 
to  boxes,  which  should  go  to  the  coldframe  and  be  given 
protection  by  mats  or  shutters. 

Coldframes  must  be  well  ventilated  on  warm,  sunny 
days;  leave  the  sashes  off  as  long  as  is  possible  without 
injury  to  the  plants.  Keep  the  soil  in  a  friable  condition, 
and  (look  carefully  to  any  possible  places  where  water  can 
stand  and  freeze.  If  the  frames  seem  too  cold,  bank  up 
around  them  with  coarse  manure. 

Hotbeds. — Look  up  and  repair  the  sashes.  Save  the 
horse-manure  from  day  to  day,  rejecting  dry  litter,  and 
piling  up  the  droppings  and  urine -soaked  bedding  in  thin 
layers  to  prevent  violent  heating. 

Lettuce  in  frames  treat  as  advised  for  cabbage  plants. 

Pruning  should  now  be  considered.  Perhaps  it  is  best 
to  prune  fruit-trees  in  March  or  April,  but  grapes  and 
currants  and  gooseberries  can  be  pruned  now.  January 
and  February  are  good  months  in  which  to  prune  peach 


390  SEASONAL    REMINDERS 

trees.  Thin  out  the  peach  trees  well,  taking  care  to 
remove  all  the  dead  wood.  If  you  have  much  pruning  to 
do  in  apple,  pear  or  plum  orchards,  you  will  save  time  by 
utilizing  the  warm  days  now.  Study  well  the  different 
methods  of  pruning.  Never  let  an  itinerant  pruner  touch 
your  trees  until  you  are  satisfied  that  he  understands  his 
business. 

Tools  can  now  be  inspected  and  repaired,  and  any  new 
ones  that  are  needed  made  or  ordered. 

FEBRUARY 

Cabbage. — Sow  seed  of  Jersey  Wakefield  in  flats  filled 
with  light,  loamy  soil  the  last  week  of  this  month.  Sow 
thinly,  cover  lightly,  and  place  the  boxes  in  a  gentle  hot- 
bed or  any  warm,  sunny  situation.  When  the  plants  are 
strong,  transplant  them  into  flats  1%  inches  apart  each 
way.  As  growth  begins,  gradually  expose  them  to  the 
open  air  on  all  favorable  occasions.  Late  in  March  re- 
move them  to  a  coldframe,  and  properly  harden  them  off 
before  setting  them  in  the  open  ground. 

Celery. — We  urgently  advise  every  one  who  has  a  garden, 
large  or  small,  to  make  a  trial  of  the  new  celery-culture. 
You  need,  first,  good  plants.  Get  some  seed  of  White 
Plume  or  Golden  Self -Blanching,  and  sow  it  thickly  in 
flats  filled  with  fine  loam.  Cover  by  sifting  a  thin  layer  of 
sand  or  fine  soil  over  it,  and  firm  well.  Keep  in  a  moder- 
ately warm  place,  watering  as  needed,  until  plants  appear. 
If  you  have  a  number  of  flats,  they  may  be  placed  on  top 
of  one  another.  At  the  first  sign  of  plant -growth,  bring 
the  flats  gradually  to  the  light.  When  the  plants  are  1% 
or  2  inches  high,  transplant  them  into  other  flats,  setting 
them  in  rows  2%  inches  apart,  the  plants  half  an  inch 
apart  in  the  rows.  Then  set  the  flats  in  a  coldframe 
until  the  plants  are  large  enough  to  plant  out  in  the  open 
ground. 

Hotbeds  for  raising  early  plants  should  be  made  this 
month.  Always  break  the  manure  up  fine  and  tread  it 
down  well.  Be  sure  to  put  enough  in  the  center  of  beds, 
so  that  there  will  be  no  sagging.  Fresh  manure  of  hard- 
worked  and  well-fed  horses,  free  from  dry  litter,  is  best. 
An  addition  of  leaves  used  for  bedding  will  serve  to  pro- 
duce a  more  moderate  but  more  lasting  heat.  Sheep  - 
manure  may  also  be  added  to  the  horse -manure,  should 
there  be  a  scant  supply  of  the  latter  on  hand. 


FEBRUARY    AND    MARCH    IN    THE    NORTH      391 

Onions. — We  urgently  advise  giving  the  new  onion- 
culture  a  trial.  For  seed,  buy  a  packet  or  an  ounce  of 
Prizetaker,  Spanish  King,  White  Victoria,  or  some  other 
large  kind  of  globe  onion.  Sow  the  seed  in  flats,  in  a 
hotbed,  or  in  a  greenhouse  late  in  the  month,  and  trans- 
plant the  onions  to  the  open  ground  as  soon  as  the  latter 
is  in  working  condition.  Set  the  plants  in  rows  one  foot 
apart  and  three  inches  apart  in  the  row.  Seed  will  be  scarce 
this  season,  that  of  white  varieties  especially  so. 

Plums. — Make  a  thorough  inspection  of  all  plum  and 
cherry  trees,  wild  and  cultivated,  for  plum-knot.  Cut 
and  burn  all  the  knots  found. 

Rhubarb. — Give  the  plants  in  the  garden  a  heavy  dress- 
ing of  fine  old  compost.  If  you  wish  a  few  early  stalks, 
place  kegs  or  boxes  over  some  of  the  plants,  and  heap 
over  them  some  heating  horse -manure. 


MARCH 

Beets.— A.  few  seeds  may  be  sown  in  the  hotbed. 

Cabbage,  cauliflower  and  celery  seeds  may  be  sown  for 
the  early  crop. 

Eggplants.— Seeds  should  be  sown.  Take  care  that  the 
young  plants  are  never  stunted. 

Grafting  may  be  done  in  favorable  weather.  Cherries 
and  plums  must  be  grafted  early.  Use  liquid  grafting- 
wax  in  cold  weather. 

Hotbeds  may  be  made  at  any  time,  but  do  not  grow 
impatient  about  the  work,  for  there  will  be  cold  weather 
yet.  Clean,  fresh  manure  is  necessary,  and  a  layer  two 
feet  thick  should  be  tramped  hard.  When  once  started 
and  the  seeds  sown,  do  not  let  the  beds  get  too  hot. 
Give  them  air  on  fine  days  and  give  the  seedlings  plenty 
of  water.  Use  two  thermometers — one  to  test  the  atmos- 
phere and  the  other  the  heat  of  the  soil. 

Lettuce  should  be  sown  in  the  hotbed  for  an  early  crop. 

Onion  seed  for  the  new  onion -culture  may  be  sown  at 
the  close  of  the  month. 

Peas. — Sow  now,  if  the  ground  can  be  worked. 

Peppers  may  be  sown  late  in  the  month. 

Potatoes  kept  for  seed  must  not  be  allowed  to  sprout. 
Keep  them  in  a  temperature  near  freezing  point.  Rub  off 
the  sprouts  from  potatoes  kept  for  eating,  and  pick  out 
all  decayed  specimens. 


392  SEASONAL    REMINDERS 

Spinach. — Sow  some  seeds  for  an  early  crop. 
Tomato  seeds  may  be  sown  in  the  hotbeds. 


APRIL 

Artichokes. — Sow  the  seeds  for  next  year's  crop.  A 
deep,  rich,  sandy  loam  is  best.  Fork  in  a  dressing  of  well- 
rotted  manure  around  the  old  plants. 

Asparagus. — Spade  in  some  good  manure  in  the  bed,  and 
give  the  soil  a  thorough  working  before. the  crowns  start. 
Sow  some  seeds  in  the  open  ground  for  young  plants  for  a 
new  bed. 

Beans.—  Limas  may  be  started  on  sods  in  a  hotbed  or  a 
coldframe  towards  the  last  of  the  month. 

Beets. — The  ground  should  be  prepared  and  the  seed  sown 
for  beets  for  cattle  as  soon  as  the  weather  will  permit. 
Put  them  in  before  planting  corn.  They  will  stand  con- 
siderable cold  weather,  and  should  be  planted  early  to  get 
a  start  of  the  weeds. 

Blackberries  should  be  pruned,  the  brush  drawn  off,  piled 
and  burned.  If  it  is  necessary  to  stake  them,  try  a  wire 
trellis,  the  same  as  for  grapes,  putting  on  one  wire  two 
and  a  half  feet  high.  The  young  plants  should  be  dug 
before  the  buds  start. 

Cabbage  seed  may  be  sown  in  the  open  ground,  in  cold- 
frames  or  in  pans  or  boxes  in  the  house.  Early  varieties 
should  be  started  at  once.  Cabbages  like  a  rich  and 
heavy  loam,  with  good  drainage.  Give  them  all  the 
manure  you  can  get. 

Cauliflower  seeds  may  be  sown  toward  the  last  of  the 
month.  They  should  never  have  a  check  from  the  time  the 
seed  is  sown  until  harvested. 

Carrot.— Sow  the  seed  of  early  sorts  like  Early  Forcing 
as  soon  as  the  ground  can  be  worked. 

Celery. — Plan  to  grow  celery  by  the  new  method.  Plenty 
of  manure  and  moisture  are  required  to  do  this.  Sow  the 
seed  in  light,  rich  soil  in  the  house,  hotbed,  coldframe  or 
open  ground.  Transplant  the  plants  once  before  setting 
them  in  the  field. 

Cress. — Sow  early  and  every  two  or  three  weeks.  Water- 
cress should  be  sown  in  damp  soil  or  in  streams.  The 
outer  edges  of  a  hotbed  may  also  be  utilized.  Cress  is  a 
very  profitable  crop  when  rightly  handled. 

Cucumber  seeds  may  be  sown  on  sods  in  the  hotbed. 

Eggplant. — Sow  in  the  hotbed,  and  transplant   when  two 


APRIL    IN    THE    NORTH  393 

inches,  high  to  other  beds  or  pots.  They  must  have  good 
care,  for  a  check  in  their  growth  means  all  the  difference 
between  profit  and  loss. 

Lettuce.— Sow  the  seeds  in  the  hotbed  and  in  the  open 
ground  as  soon  as  it  can  be  worked.  Plants  sown  a  month 
ago  should  be  transplanted. 

Leek. — Sow  the  seeds  in  the  open  ground  in  drills  six 
inches  apart  and  one  inch  deep,  and  when  large  enough 
thin  to  one  inch  in  the  row. 

MusJcmelon.—  Plant  some  seeds  in  sods  in  the  hotbed. 

Parsnip. — Dig  the  roots  before  they  grow  and  become 
soft  and  pithy.  The  seeds  may  be  sown  as  soon  as  the 
ground  is  dry  enough  to  work. 

Parsley. — Soak  the  seeds  in  warm  water  for  a  few  hours 
and  sow  in  the  open  ground. 

Peas. — Sow  the  seeds  as  soon  as  the  ground  can  be 
worked.  They  will  stand  considerable  cold  and  trans- 
planting also.  Time  may  be  gained  by  sowing  some  seeds 
in  moist  sand  in  a  box  in  the  cellar  and  transplanting 
when  well  sprouted.  Plant  deep  in  light,  dry  soil,  cover 
an  inch  at  first,  and  draw  in  the  earth  as  the  vines  grow. 

Potatoes. — Plant  early  on  rich  soil  free  from  blight  and 
scab.  For  a  very  early  crop,  the  potatoes  may  be  sprouted 
before  planting. 

Peppers.— Sow  the  seeds  in  the  hotbed  or  in  the  boxes 
in  the  house. 

Kadish  seeds  may  be  sown  in  the  open  ground  or  in  the 
hotbed  and  the  crop  harvested  from  there.  The  small, 
round  varieties  are  best  for  this  purpose. 

Strawberries.—  Give  a  good,  thorough  cultivation  between 
the  rows  and  then  remove  the  mulch  from  the  plants, 
placing  it  in  the  rows,  where  it  will  help  to  keep  the  weeds 
down. 

Salsify.— Sow  the  seeds  as  soon  as.  the  ground  can  be 
worked.  Give  the  same  care  and  cultivation  as  for  carrots 
or  parsnips. 

Spinach  seeds  must  be  sown  early,  and  then  every  two 
weeks  for  a  succession.  Thin  out  and  use  the  plants  be- 
fore they  send  up  flower -stalks. 

Squash. — Hubbards  and  summer  squashes  may  be  started 
on  sods  in  the  hotbed. 

Tomato. — Sow  in  the  hotbed  or  in  shallow  boxes  in  the 
house.  Try  some  of  the  yellow  varieties;  they  are  the 
finest  flavored  of  any. 


394  SEASONAL    REMINDERS 


MAY 

Beans. — The  bush  sorts  may  be  planted  in  the  open 
ground,  and  Limas  in  pots  or  sods  in  a  coldframe  or  spent 
hotbed.  They  require  a  long  season  to  mature,  and  should 
be  started  early. 

Beets. — Sow  for  a  succession.  Transplant  those  started 
under  glass. 

Cabbages  always  do  best  on  a  freshly -turned  sod,  and 
should  be  set  before  the  land  has  had  time  to  dry  after 
plowing.  The  secret  of  success  in  getting  a  large  yield 
of  cabbage  is  to  start  with  rich  land  and  put  on  all  the 
manure  obtainable.  Clean  out  the  hog  yard  for  this  pur- 
pose. 

Cucumbers. — Sow  in  the  open  ground  toward  the  last 
of  the  month.  A  few  may  be  started  as  advised  for  Lima 
beans. 

Lettuce. — Sow  for  a  succession,  and  thin  to  four  inches 
in  the  rows. 

Melons. — Plant  in  the  open  ground  toward  the  end  of 
the  month.  It  is  useless  to  plant  melons  and  other  cucur- 
bitaceous  plants  until  settled  weather  has  arrived. 

Onions.—  Finish  planting  and  transplanting,  and  keep  all 
weeds  down,  both  in  the  seed-bed  and  the  open  field. 

Peas.— Sow  for  a  succession. 

Squashes. — Plant  as  advised  for  melons  and  cucumbers. 
They  require  a  rich,  well-manured  soil. 

Strawberries. — Remove  the  blossoms  from  newly-set 
plants.  Mulch  with  salt  or  marsh  hay  or  clean  straw  or 
leaves  those  that  are  to  bear.  Mulching  conserves  mois- 
ture, keeps  the  berries  clean,  and  prevent  weeds  from 
growing. 

Sweet  com.— Plant  early  and  late  varieties,  and  by 
making  two  or  three  plantings  of  each,  at  intervals,  a 
succession  may  be  kept  up  all  summer  and  fall.  Sweet 
corn  is  delicious,  and  one  can  hardly  have  too  much  of  it. 

Tomatoes. — Set  some  early  plants  by  the  middle  of  the 
month  or  earlier,  if  the  ground  is  warm  and  the  season 
early  and  fair.  They  may  be  protected  from  the  cold  by 
covering  with  hay,  straw,  cloth  or  paper,  or  even  with 
earth.  The  main  crop  should  not  be  set  until  the  20th 
or  25th,  or  until  all  danger  of  frost  is  over.  However, 
tomatoes  will  stand  more  chilly  weather  than  is  ordinarily 
supposed. 


JUNE    IN    THE    NORTH  395 


JUNE 

Asparagus. — Cease  cutting  and  allow  the  shoots  to  grow. 
Keep  the  weeds  down  and  the  soil  well  stirred.  An  appli- 
cation of  a  quick  commercial  fertilizer  or  of  liquid  manure 
will  be  beneficial. 

Beans.— Sow  the  wax  sorts  for  succession.  As  soon  as 
a  crop  is  off  pull  out  the  vines  and  plant  the  ground  to 
late  cabbage,  turnips  or  sweet  corn. 

Beets. —Transplant  in  rows  one  to  three  feet  apart  and 
six  inches  in  the  row.  Cut  off  most  of  the  top,  water 
thoroughly,  and  they  will  soon  start. 

Cabbage  and  Cauliflower.— Set  plants  for  the  late  crop. 
Rich,  newly-turned  sod  and  a  heavy  dressing  of  well-rotted 
manure  go  a  long  ways  toward  assuring  a  good  crop. 

Celery. — Set  the  main  crop,  and  try  the  new  method  of 
setting  the  plants  seven  inches  apart  each  way,  if  you  have 
rich  land  and  can  irrigate,  but  not  unless  these  conditions 
are  present. 

Cucumbers  may  yet  be  planted,  if  done  early  in  the  month. 

Currants. — Spray  with  Paris  green  for  the  currant  worm 
until  the  fruit  sets.  Hellebore  is  good,  but  it  is  difficult  to 
get  it  of  good  strength. 

Lettuce. — Sow  for  succession  in  a  moist,  cool,  and  par- 
tially shaded  spot.  The  seed  does  not  germinate  well  in 
hot  weather. 

Lima  beans  should  be  hoed  frequently  and  started  on  the 
poles,  if  they  are  contrary. 

Melons.—  Cultivate  often  and  watch  for  the  bugs.  A 
screen  of  closely  woven  wire  or  mosquito  netting  may  be 
used  to  cover  the  vines,  or  tobaceo  dust  sifted  on  thickly. 

Onions.— Keep  free  from  weeds  and  stir  the  ground  fre- 
quently, and  especially  after  every  rain. 

Squashes. — Keep  the  ground  well  cultivated  and  look  out 
for  bugs.  (See  melons.)  Layer  the  vines  and  cover  the 
joints  with  fresh  soil,  to  prevent  death  of  the  vines  from 
the  attacks  of  the  borer. 

Strawberries. — Plow  up  the  old  bed  that  has  borne  two 
crops,  as  it  will  usually  not  pay  to  keep  it.  Set  the  ground 
to  late  cabbage  or  some  other  crop.  The  young  bed  that 
has  borne  the  first  crop  should  have  a  thorough  cultivation 
and  the  plow  run  close  to  the  rows  to  narrow  them  to  the 
required  width.  Pull  up  or  hoe  out  all  weeds  and  keep 
the  ground  clean  the  rest  of  the  season.  This  applies  with 
equal  force  to  the  newly-set  bed.  A  bed  can  be  set  late 


396  SEASONAL    REMINDERS 

next  month  from  young  runners.  Pinch  off  the  end  after 
the  first  joint,  and  allow  it  to  root  on  a  sod  or  in  a  small 
pot  set  level  with  the  surface. 

Tomatoes.— For  an  early  crop  train  to  a  trellis,  pinch  off 
all  side  shoots,  and  allow  all  the  strength  to  go  to  the  main 
stalk.  They  may  also  be  trained  to  poles,  the  same  as 
Lima  beans,  and  can  be  set  closer  if  grown  in  this  way. 
Spray  with  the  Bordeaux  mixture  for  the  blight,  keep  the 
foliage  thinned  and  the  vines  off  the  ground. 

Turnips. — Sow  for  an  early  fall  crop. 

JULY 

Beans. — Sow  the  wax  sorts  for  a  succession. 

Beets. — Sow  Early  Egyptian  or  Eclipse  for  young  beets 
next  fall. 

Blackberries. — Head  back  the  young  canes  to  three 
feet,  and  the  laterals  also  when  they  get  longer.  They 
may  be  pinched  with  the  thumb-nail  and  finger  in  a 
small  patch,  but  this  soon  makes  the  fingers  sore,  and 
where  there  are  many  bushes  to  go  over  it  is  better 
to  use  a  pair  of  shears  or  a  sharp  sickle. 

Cabbage. — Set   plants   for   the    late    crop. 

Corn. — Plant   sweet   corn   for   succession    and    late    use. 

Cucumbers. — It  is  late  to  plant,  but  they  may  be  put 
in  for  pickles  if  done  before  the  Fourth.  Cultivate  those 
which  are  up,  and  keep  an  eye  open  for  bugs. 

Currants. — Cover  a  few  bushes  with  muslin  or  burlap 
before  the  fruit  ripens,  and  you  can  eat  currants  in  Au- 
gust. Use  hellebore,  rather  than  Paris  green,  for  the 
last  brood  of  currant  worms,  and  apply  it  as  soon  as 
the  worms  appear.  There  is  no  danger  in  using  it, 
even  if  the  currants  are  ripe. 

Lettuce,  seed  does  not  germinate  well  in  hot  weather. 
Sow  in  a  moist,  shaded  position  for  a  succession. 

Lima  beans. — Hoe  them  frequently,  and  give  assistance 
to  get  on  the  poles. 

Melons. — Watch  for  bugs,  and  apply  tobacco  dust  freely 
around  the  plants.  Keep  them  well  cultivated.  A  light 
application  of  bone  meal  will  pay. 

Peaches,  pears  and  plums  should  be  thinned  to  secure 
fine  fruit  and  to  help  sustain  the  vigor  of  the  tree. 
Ripening  the  seed  is  what  draws  on  the  tree's  vitality, 
and  if  the  number  of  seeds  can  be  reduced  one -half 
or  two -thirds,  part  of  the  strength  required  to  ripen 


JULY — SEPTEMBER    IN    THE    NORTH  397 

them  will  go  into  perfecting  the  fruit  and  seeds  left, 
and  add  greatly  to  the  fine  appearance,  flavor  and  quality 
of  the  edible  portion. 

Radishes. — Sow  the  early  kinds  for  a  succession,  and 
toward  the  end  of  the  month  the  winter  sorts  may  be 
put  in. 

Raspberries.—  Pinch  back  the  canes  to  two  and  one- 
half  feet,  the  same  way  as  given  for  blackberries. 

Squashes. — Keep  the  ground  well  stirred,  and  use  to- 
bacco dust  freely  for  bugs  and  beetles.  Cover  the  joints 
with  fresh  soil,  and  apply  the  kerosene  emulsion  for 
the  vine -borer. 

AUGUST 

Beets. — A  last  sowing  of  the  early  table  sorts  may  be 
made  for  a  succession. 

Cabbage. — Harvest  the  early  crop,  and  give  good  culti- 
vation to  the  main  crop.  Keep  down  the  bugs  and  worms. 

Celery.— The  latest  crop  may  yet  be  set.  Earlier  set 
plants  should  be  handled  as  they  attain  sufficient  size. 
Common  drain  tiles  are  excellent  for  blanching  if  one  has 
them,  and  must  be  put  on  when  the  plants  are  about  half 
grown.  Hoe  frequently  to  keep  the  plants  growing. 

Onions. — Harvest  as  soon  as  the  bulbs  are  well  formed. 
Let  them  lie  on  the  ground  until  cured,  then  draw  to  the 
barn  floor  or  some  other  airy  place  and  spread  thinly. 
Market  when  you  can  get  a  good  price,  and  the  sooner  the 
better. 

Tomatoes  may  be  hastened  in  coloring  by  being  picked 
just  as  they  begin  to  color  and  placed  in  single  layers  in  a 
coldframe  or  hotbed,  where  they  can  be  covered  with  sash. 


SEPTEMBER 

In  many  parts  of  the  North  it  is  not  too  late  to  sow  rye, 
or  peas,  or  corn,  to  afford  winter  protection  for  orchards. 
As  a  rule,  very  late  fall  plowing  for  orchards  is  not  ad- 
visable. Now  is  a  good  time  to  trim  up  the  fence -rows 
and  to  burn  the  brush  piles,  in  order  to  destroy  the  breed- 
ing places  of  rabbits,  insects  and  weeds.  Cuttings  of 
gooseberries  and  currants  may  be  taken.  Use  only  the 
wood  of  the  current  year's  growth,  making  the  cuttings 
about  a  foot  long.  Strip  off  the  leaves,  if  they  have  not 


398  SEASONAL    REMINDERS 

already  fallen,  tie  the  cuttings  in  large  bundles,  and  bury 
them  in  a  cold  cellar,  or  in  a  sandy,  well -drained  knoll; 
or  if  the  cutting-bed  is  well  prepared  and  well  drained, 
they  may  be  planted  immediately,  the  bed  being  well 
mulched  upon  the  approach  of  winter.  September  and 
October  are  good  months  in  which  to  set  orchards,  provided 
the  ground  is  well  prepared  and  well  drained,  and  is  not 
too  much  exposed  to  sweeping  winds.  Wet  lands  should 
never  be  set  in  the  fall;  and  such  lands,  too,  are  not  fit 
for  orchards.  Strawberries  may  still  be  set;  also,  bush 
fruits. 

Seeds  of  various  flowers  may  now  be  sown  for  winter 
bloom,  if  one  has  a  conservatory  or  good  window.  Petu- 
nias, phloxes  and  many  annuals  make  good  window  plants. 
Quicker  results  are  secured,  however,  if  border  plants  of 
p'etunias  and  some  other  things  are  dug  up  just  before  frost 
and  placed  in  pots  or  boxes.  Keep  them  cool  and  shaded 
for  a  couple  of  weeks,  cut  down  the  tops,  and  they  will 
send  up  a  vigorous  and  floriferous  growth.  Winter  roses 
should  now  be  in  place  in  the  beds  or  in  pots. 

There  will  be  odd  days  when  one  can  go  to  the  woods 
and  fields  and  collect  roots  of  wild  herbs  and  shrubs  for 
planting  in  the  yard  or  along  the  unused  borders  of  the 
garden. 


OCTOBER 

Asparagus.— Old  plantations  should  now  be  cleaned  off, 
and  the  tops  removed  at  once.  This  is  a  good  time 
to  apply  manure  to  the  beds.  For  young  plantations, 
which  may  be  started  now  as  well  as  in  spring,  select  a 
warm  soil  and  sunny  exposure,  and  give  each  plant  plenty 
of  room.  We  like  to  set  them  in  rows  five  feet  apart 
and  at  least  two  feet  apart  in  the  rows. 

Cabbages. — The  heads  that  will  winter  best  are  those 
just  fully  formed,  not  the  over-ripe  ones.  For  family 
use,  bury  an  empty  barrel  in  a  well -drained  spot,  and 
fill  it  with  good  heads.  Place  a  lot  of  dry  leaves  on  top, 
and  cover  the  barrel  so  that  it  will  shed  rain.  Or,  pile 
some  cabbages  in  a  corner  of  the  barn  floor  and  cover 
them  with  enough  straw  to  prevent  solid  freezing. 

Cabbage -Plants  started  from  seed  last  month,  prick 
OTit  in  coldframes,  putting  about  600  to  the  ordinary  sash 
and  setting  them  quite  deep. 


OCTOBER  AND  NOVEMBER  IN  THE  NORTH     399 

Chicory.— Dig  what  is  wanted  for  salad,  and  store  it 
in  sand  in  a  dry  cellar. 

Endive. — Blanch  by  gathering  up  the  leaves  and  tying 
them  lightly  at  the  tips. 

General  Garden  Management. — The  only  planting  that 
can  be  done  in  open  ground  at  this  time  is  restricted 
to  rhubarb,  asparagus,  and  perhaps  onion -sets.  Begin 
to  think  about  next  year's  planting,  and  to  make  arrange- 
ments for  the  manure  that  will  be  needed.  Often  you 
can  purchase  it  now  to  good  advantage,  and  haul  it  while 
the  roads  are  yet  good.  Clean  up  and  plow  the  ground 
when  the  crops  are  harvested. 

Lettuce. — Plants  to  be  wintered  over  should  be  set  in 
frames  like  cabbage -plants. 

Onions. — Plant  sets  of  Extra  Early  Pearl,  or  some  other 
hardy  kind,  in  the  same  fashion  as  in  early  spring.  They 
are  likely  to  winter  well,  and  will  give  an  early  crop 
of  fine  bunching  onions.  For  the  North,  fall  sowing  of 
onion-seed  cannot  be  recommended. 

Parsley.—  Lift  some  plants  and  set  them  in  a  cold- 
frame  four  or  five  inches  apart,  or  in  a  box  filled  with 
good  soil,  and  place  in  a  light  cellar  or  under  a  shed. 

Pears. — Pick  the  winter  sorts  just  before  there  is  dan- 
ger from  freezing.  Put  them  in  a  cool,  dark  place,  where 
they  will  neither  mold  nor  shrivel.  To  hasten  ripening, 
they  can  be  brought  into  a  warm  room  as  wanted. 

Rhubarb. — If  plants  are  to  be  set  or  replanted  this 
fall,  enrich  the  ground  with  a  superabundance  of  fine 
old  stable -manure,  and  give  each  plant  a  few  feet  of 
space  each  way.  In  order  to  have  fresh  pie-plant  in 
winter,  dig  up  some  of  the  roots  and  plant  them  in  good 
soil  in  a  barrel  placed  in  the  cellar. 

Sweet  potatoes. — Dig  them  when  ripe  after  the  first 
frost.  Cut  off  the  vines,  and  turn  the  potatoes  out  with 
a  potato -fork  or  plow.  Handle  them  carefully  to  pre- 
vent bruising.  Only  sound,  well -ripened  roots  are  in 
proper  condition  to  be  wintered  over. 


NOVEMBER 

Asparagus.— Manure   before   winter   sets   in. 

Beets.—  They  keep  best  in  pits.  Some  may  be  kept 
in  the  cellar  for  use  during  winter,  but  cover  them  with 
sand  or  sods  to  prevent  shriveling. 


400  SEASONAL    REMINDERS 

Blackberries.— Cut  away  the  old  wood  and  mulch  the 
roots.  Tender  sorts  should  be  laid  down  and  lightly 
covered  with  soil  at  the  tips. 

Carrots. — Treats  as  advertised  for  beets. 

Celery. — Dig  up  the  stalks,  leaving  the  roots  on,  and 
stand  them  close  together  in  a  narrow  trench,  tops  just 
even  with  the  ground -level.  Gradually  cover  them  with 
boards,  earth  and  manure.  Another  way  is  to  set  them 
upright  upon  the  floor  of  a  damp  cellar  or  root- house, 
keeping  the  roots  moist  and  the  tops  dry.  Celery  can 
stand  some  frost,  but  not  exposure  to  less  than  22°  Fahr. 
The  stalks  intended  for  use  before  Christmas  may  in 
most  localities  be  left  outdoors,  to  be  used  as  wanted. 
Should  cold  weather  set  in  early,  they  will  need  covering 
in  some  way. 

Orchard  Management. — Young  trees  should  have  a  mound 
of  earth  raised  around  the  stem  as  a  support,  and  pro- 
tection against  mice,  etc.  Small  and  lately  planted  trees 
must  have  stakes  set  besides  them,  and  be  tied  to  the 
stakes  with  a  broad  band.  Apple  and  pear  trees  may 
yet  be  planted.  Trim  superfluous  or  unhealthy  wood  out 
of  the  old  orchards. 

Spinach. — Cover  the  beds  lightly  with  leaves  or  litter 
before  winter  sets  in. 

Strawberries. — Soon  it  will  be  time  to  mulch  the  beds. 
Provide  marsh-hay,  or  other  coarse  litter,  free  from 
weed- seeds,  and  when  the  ground  has  frozen  an  inch 
or  so,  spread  it  all  over  the  surface  thinly  and  evenly. 


DECEMBER 

Cabbages.—  Plants  in  coldframes  should  be  aired  freely 
and  kept  cool.  Heads  intended  for  winter  and  spring  use, 
if  not  yet  taken  in  or  protected  from  severe  freezing,  must 
now  be  cared  for.  Do  not  cover  them  too  deeply,  nor  store 
them  in  too  warm  a  place. 

Carrots. — Store  them  in  cellars  or  pits.  If  in  cellars, 
keep  the  roots  covered  with  sand  or  sod,  to  prevent  wilting. 

General  Garden  Management.— Begin  now  to  make  your 
plans  for  next  season's  work.  Carefully  study  up  the  mat- 
ter of  rotation,  also  that  of  feeding  your  crops  in  the  most 
effective  and  economical  manner.  Repair  frames,  sashes 
and  tools.  Clear  up  the  garden  and  premises.  Underdrain 
where  needed.  Beds  for  early  vegetables  should"  be  thrown 


JANUARY    IN    THE    SOUTH  401 

up  in  high,  narrow  ridges,  with  deep  furrows  between. 
This  will  enable  you  to  plant  them  several  days  or  weeks 
earlier  than  otherwise. 

Kale. — In  very  exposed  or  northern  locations  cover  it 
lightly  with  coarse  litter. 

Onions. — For  winter  storage  select  only  well -ripened, 
perfectly  dry  bulbs.  Store  them  in  a  dry,  airy  place,  not 
in  the  cellar.  They  may  be  spread  out  thinly  on  the  floor, 
away  from  the  walls,  allowed  to  freeze  solid,  and  then 
covered  several  feet  deep  with  hay  or  straw. 

Parsnips.—  Take  up  some  roots  for  winter  use  and  store 
them  in  sand  in  the  cellar. 

Strawberry -beds  should  be  given  their  winter  covering  of 
marsh -hay,  etc.,  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  frozen  solid. 


*.     FOR    THE    SOUTH 
JANUARY 

Annuals. — All  kinds  of  hardy  annuals  and  perennials, 
such  as  alyssum,  snapdragon,  foxglove,  hollyhock,  phlox, 
poppy,  pansy,  lobelia,  candytuft,  sweet  pea,  Chinese  pink, 
sweet-william,  larkspur,  foliage  cinerarias,  eentaurea,  mig- 
nonette, and  many  others  of  the  same  class  may  be  sown. 
Most  of  them  should  be  sown  thinly,  and  where  they  are 
intended  to  flower,  as  they  transplant  poorly  in  this 
latitude. 

Cannas,  caladiums,  perennial  phloxes,  chrysanthemums  and 
verbenas  may  be  taken  up,  divided  and  re -planted. 

Roses  may  be  planted  in  quantities.  Let  the  ground  in- 
tended for  them  have  a  thorough  dressing  of  manure. 
Occasionally  a  plant  can  be  taken  up  and  divided.  The 
hybrid  varieties  may  now  be  layered.  This  is  done  as  fol- 
lows: Select  a  shoot  and  bend  it  flat  upon  the  ground; 
hold  it  in  both  hands,  having  a  distance  of  about  six  inches 
between  them.  Keep  the  left  hand  firm,  and  with  the 
right  give  the  shoot  a  sharp  twist.  Now  cover  it  with 
four  inches  of  earth  and  tie  the  free  end  to  an  upright  stake. 

Asparagus  beds  should  be  liberally  manured.  New  beds 
should  now  be  made.  Set  the  plants  six  inches  deep. 
Sow  seed  now. 

Beets  and  all  hardy  vegetables  (carrots,  parsnips,  turnips, 
ruta-bagas,  kohlrabi,  spinach,  lettuce,  herbs,  etc.,)  may  now 
be  sown,  planted  or  transplanted. 


402  SEASONAL    REMINDERS 

Cabbage  plants  should  be  set  out  on  heavily -manured 
ground.  Sow  seed  of  Early  Summer  for  a  later  supply. 

Fruits. — If  possible,  all  planting  and  transplanting  of 
fruit-trees  and  grape-vines  should  be  finished  this  month. 
Pruning  should  be  completed  as  soon  as  possible,  and 
preparation  made  to  protect  the  blossoms  of  tender  fruits 
next  month.  Set  out  strawberry -plants,  and  during  dry 
weather  run  the  cultivator  through  all  old  beds  that  are 
at  all  weedy.  It  is  a  good  plan,  where  practicable,  to 
mulch  the  beds.  Here,  pine-straw  can  be  had  plentifully 
for  the  purpose.  Examine  peach  trees  for  borers.  Rasp- 
berries and  blackberries  should  be  pruned  now  if  the 
work  is  not  already  done.  Cuttings  of  Le  Conte  pears, 
Marianna  plums,  grape-vines  and  pomegranates  should  be 
put  in  at  once  if  they  have  heretofore  been  forgotten. 
Root -grafting  should  be  progressing  rapidly;  this  is  best 
time  for  this  important  work. 

Onion  seeds.— Sow  at  once,  and  plant  sets  as  soon  as 
possible. 

Peas. — Sow  early  and  late  varieties.  The  late  varieties 
succeed  best  if  sown  at  this  season. 

Seasonable  work. — This  is  a  good  month  to  obtain  canes 
for  staking  peas,  tomatoes  and  beans,  hauling  manure, 
making  repairs  and  examining  tools,  etc.  As  the  fall  crop 
is  harvested  the  land  should  be  prepared  for  another  crop. 
Tile -draining  is  now  in  order.  Prepare  frames  to  cover 
with  canvas  for  use  next  month. 

Sweet  potatoes. — A  few  may  be  bedded  in  a  frame  from 
which  to  obtain  "  draws  "  for  settting  out  about  March  15. 

Tomatoes,  eggplants  and  peppers. — Sow  now  on  a  slight 
hotbed.  When  the  plants  come  up  all  the  air  possible 
should  be  given  during  the  day.  They  can  be  raised 
without  heat,  but  at  this  season  this  plan  is  likely  to  be 
attempted  only  by  the  skillful. 


FEBRUARY 

Asters,  cannas,  dahlias,  heliotropes,  lobelias,  petunias,  py- 
rethrum,  ricinus,  salvias  and  verbenas  are  best  sown  in  a 
coldframe  where  they  can  have  some  protection  from 
heavy  rain. 

Cannas  should  be  transplanted  now. 

Chrysanthemums  must  be  planted  in  well -manured  ground 
in  a  position  where  water  can  be  readily  supplied  to  them. 


FEBRUARY    IN    THE     SOUTH  403 

DahMas  may  be  taken  up  and  divided  as  soon  as  they 
begin  growth.  < 

Gladiolus  and  tuberose  lulls  should  he  planted  now.  It 
is  a  good  plan  to  extend  the  planting  through  March  and 
April. 

Pansies.—  Plant  them  out  in  the  beds  where  they  are  to 
flower. 

Routine  work. — Sodding  should  now  proceed  rapidly.  If 
sods  cannot  be  obtained  the  ground  may  be  planted  with 
Bermuda  grass.  Plant  small  pieces  of  the  grass  a  foot 
apart  and  water  them  if  the  weather  is  dry,  and  they  will 
grow  rapidly.  Hedges  should  be  cleared  up  and  put  in 
good  shape.  All  planting  of  trees  and  shrubs  should  be 
finished  this  month.  All  pruning  of  trees,  etc.,  must  be 
done  early  in  the  month.  Young  roses  cannot  be  set  too^ 
early  in  February.  They  thrive  best  when  planted  in  fall.' 
Roll  the  drives  and  repair  them  where  necessary.  The 
lawn  will  now  require  constant  care,  and  the  mower  should 
be  used  before  the  grass  becomes  \%  inches  high. 

Bush -beans  can  be  planted  February  14.  On  alluvial 
land  it  is  best  to  plant  them  on  slight  rises  as  a  protection 
against  the  rains  which  sometimes  occur  toward  the  end 
of  the  month.  If  frost  should  threaten  just  as  the  beans 
begin  to  peep  out,  cover  them  an  inch  deep  with  the  plow 
or  hand  cultivator.  Sow  Early  Mohawk  first,  and  at  the 
end  of  the  month  sow  Early  Valentine ;  a  week  later  sow 
the  wax  varieties. 

Cabbage.— Sow  early  varieties,  such  as  Early  Summer, 
Early  Drumhead  and  Early  Flat  Dutch.  Etampes,  Extra 
Early  Express  and  Winnigstadt  sown  for  small  heads  in 
the  order  named  have  done  very  well  with  me.  The 
earlier- sown  plants  should  be  transplanted  as  often  as 
convenient.  Should  worms  cause  trouble,  dust  the  plants 
with  a  mixture  of  one  part  of  pyrethrurn  powder  to  six  of 
fine  dust. 

Carrots,  celery,  beets,  endive,  kohl-rabi,  onion-sets,  parsley, 
parsnips,  radishes  and  purple- top  turnips  must  now  be  sown. 

Corn. — Plant  Extra  Early  Adams,  Yellow  Canada,  Stowell 
Evergreen  and  White  Flint  toward  the  middle  of  the 
month.  Sow  again  a  week  later,  and  again  after  another 
week.  If  the  first  two  sowings  fail,  the  last  one  will  give 
the  early  crop. 

Cucumbers. — Sow  and  protect  with  small  boxes  during 
cold  days  and  nights,  or  sow  in  pots  or  on  sods.  Protect 
the  seedlings  with  sashes  or  canvas,  and  plant  them  out  late. 


404  SEASONAL    REMINDERS 

Lettuce.— Sow  seeds  and  transplant  the  plants  on  hand. 
This  crop  requires  a  soil  well  supplied  with  plant-food. 

Melons. — Plant  seeds  in  the  same  manner  as  advised 
for  cucumbers. 

Okra. — Sow  seeds  on  sods  and  set  out  the  plants  next 
month. 

Peas.— Sow  seeds  of  a  number  of  varieties. 

Peppers  and  eggplants,  if  not  sown  last  month,  should 
be  sown  now.  Sow  them  under  glazed  sashes  and  keep 
close.  When  the  plants  appear  give  some  air,  and  increase 
it  according  to  the  weather.  If  a  large  number  of  plants  is 
required  the  sowing  may  be  delayed  until  next  month. 
Should  flea-bugs  trouble  you,  use  plenty  of  pyrethrum 
powder. 

Potatoes,  Irish. — The  main  crop  should  be  planted  as 
early  as  possible.  Standard  varieties  are  Early  Kose, 
Peerless  and  Burbank. 

Potatoes,  sweet,  can  now  be  bedded  and  protected  with 
canvas,  or  a  row  or  two  of  whole  tubers  may  be  planted 
for  "draws"  and  vines. 

Strawberries.—  Eun  the  cultivator  through  them  at  least 
once  every  three  weeks;  if  they  are  to  be  mulched  collect 
the  necessary  m.iterial.  Strawberries  planted  in  February 
seldom  yield  much  of  a  crop. 

Tomatoes  in  frames  should  be  given  all  the  air  and  light 
possible  and  plenty  of  room;  if  protected  with  canvas, 
don't  allow  the  plants  to  crowd. 


MARCH 

Beans.— Sow  all  varieties  for  a  fall  crop.  As  soon  as 
the  plants  appear  the  cultivator  must  be  run  through  the 
crop,  and  kept  going  as  often  as  necessary. 

Corn. — Continue  to  plant;  and  we  recommend  harrow- 
ing the  patch  as  soon  as  the  young  corn  appears.  It  is 
generally  planted  in  hills  three  or  four  feet  apart,  but 
better  results  will  be  obtained  by  planting  in  drills  and 
leaving  one  stalk  every  twelve  inches. 

Cucumbers. — Sow  in  hills  four  feet  apart,  using  a  liberal 
quality  of  seed  to  each  hill.  When  the  plants  come  up 
thin  them  to  about  six  in  the  hill.  When  the  plants  be- 
gin to  get  rough  leaves  pull  out  one  or  two  more  from  each 
hill.  Striped  cucumber-beetles  are  sometimes  very  numer- 


MARCH    AND     APRIL    IN    THE     SOUTH          405 

ous,  and  in  order  to  get  a  stand  of  plants  it  is  neeessay 
to  go  through  the  patch  early  every  morning  and  sprinkle 
all  the  hills  with  air -slaked  lime. 

Eggplants. — Toward  the  end  of  the  month  the  plants 
growing  in  frames  can  be  transplanted  to  their  fruiting 
quarters.  Seed  can  be  sown  outside  after  March  15; 
sooner  if  a  warm  and  sheltered  spot  is  selected. 

Lettuce. — Sow  in  drills,  and  when  the  plants  are  large 
enough  thin  to  a  foot  apart.  If  transplanted  at  this  sea- 
son they  often  go  to  seed. 

OJc-ra. — A  sowing  can  be  made  now,  but  the  main  plant- 
ing had  best  be  deferred  until  after  March  15.  Sow  in 
drills  three  feet  apart  and  thin  the  plants  to  eighteen 
inches  apart  in  the  drills. 

Peas. — Early  varieties  may  be  sown;  it  is  now  too  late 
to  sow  tall -growing  kinds. 

Peppers.— Treat  as  advised  for  eggplants. 

Potatoes,  Irish. — It  is  not  too  late  to  plant  them,  but 
the  sooner  they  are  planted  the  better.  The  crop  planted 
in  February  should  be  harrowed  as  soon  as  the  shoots 
begin  to  come  up,  and  when  the  rows  can  be  fairly  seen 
the  cultivator  must  be  set  to  work  to  keep  down  weeds 
and  grass. 

Potatoes,  sweet. — If  slips  or  vines  are  at  hand  they  may 
be  planted  late  in  the  month  for  the  earliest  tubers.  The 
whole  potatoes  may  be  planted  on  a  ridge  to  yield  vines 
for  later  planting. 

Squashes. — Plant  seed  in  hills  six  feet  apart.  The  di- 
rections for  planting  melons  can  be  followed.  The  same 
remarks  apply  to  pumpkins  and  other  vegetables  of  this 
kind. 

Tomatoes.— About  March  15  the  frame  plants  can  go  to 
their  fruiting  quarters.  It  is  necessary  to  use  some  judg- 
ment in  this  matter,  as  they  may  be  killed  or  injured  by 
an  April  frost.  Seed  may  be  sown  in  the  open  ground 
for  plants  for  late  fruiting.  Set  the  plants  four  feet 
apart  each  way. 

Strawberries. — The  mulching  of  beds  or  rows  should  be 
no  longer  delayed,  if  clean  and  plentiful  fruit  is  wanted. 

APRIL 

Alternantheras  should  go  out  now. 

Annuals  of  all  kinds  can  still  be  sown  where  they  are  to 
flower,  as  they  transplant  with  difficulty  at  this  season. 


406  SEASONAL    REMINDERS 

Coleuses. — Plant  out  in  the  beds  now.  Cuttings  root 
readily,  simply  requiring  to  be  stuck  in. 

Beans  of  all  kinds  can  be  planted,  Limas  especially. 

Beets, — Make  another  sowing  of  these. 

Cabbage  plants  obtained  from  spring  sowings  should  be 
set  out  as  soon  as  fit.  The  ground  requires  to  be  very  rich 
to  carry  this  crop. 

Cucumbers. — These  can  be  sown  anywhere  now. 

Corn. — Make  a  sowing  to  yield  roasting  ears  to  come  in 
after  that  sown  last  month. 

Okra. — Sow  in  drills  three  or  four  feet  apart. 

Peas. — Making  a  sowing  of  early  varieties  for  the  last 
time. 

Squash  (busk)  and  pumpkin  can  now  be  planted. 

Tomatoes  should  be  got  out  to  their  fruiting  quarters  as 
early  in  the  month  as  possible.  Let  them  be  set  at  least 
four  feet  apart  each  way. 


Beans. — Plant  a  few  more  bush  and  pole  beans. 

Celery  may  now  be  commenced  with.  The  bed  or  box 
needs  plenty  of  wrater,  and  should  be  shaded  from  sun. 

Lettuce  requires  careful  handling  to  encourage  it  to  ger- 
minate. It  is  best  sown  in  a  box  and  kept  shaded  and 
moist. 

Melons,  cucumbers,  squashes  and  pumpkins  can  be  sown. 

Radishes.— Sow  the  yellow  and  white  summer  varieties. 

Remarks. —It  is  a  constant  struggle  with  weeds  through- 
out this  month,  and  the  cultivator  and  plow  are  ever 
going.  As  the  land  becomes  vacant  sow  corn  or  plant 
sweet  potatoes — draws  or  vines.  Sow  some  late  Italian 
cauliflower.  Let  the  orchard  have  constant  and  thorough 
cultivation,  and  remove  all  unnecessary  growth  from  the 
trees  as  soon  as  they  appear.  Be  always  on  the  lookout 
for  borers.  Keep  the  strawberries  as  free  of  grass  and 
coco,  or  knob-grass,  as  possible. 


JUNE 

Beans. — All  kinds  may  now  be  sown. 
Cauliflower. — Sow  the  Italian  kinds. 

Corn. — Make  a  planting  at  the   beginning   of    the   month 
and  again  at  the  end. 


JUNE  AND  JULY  IN  THE  SOUTH      407 

Cucumbers. — Plant  a  few  more  hills.  The  plants  at  this 
season  must  "be  given  plenty  of  water. 

Endive.  -  Sow  and  attend  to  the  tying  up  of  the  plants 
that  are  of  sufficient  size. 

Melons. — Sow  for  a  succession  a  few  more  water  and 
muskmelons. 

Okra  can  still  be  sown. 

Radishes. — Sow  the  summer  varieties  now. 

Squashes  and  pumpkins  may  yet  be  sown. 

Sweet  potato  vines  may  now  be  set  out  in  quantities. 

Tomatoes. — About  the  middle  of  the  month  sow  for  the 
fall  crop. 


JULY 

Beans. — Bush  and  pole  beans  can  be  planted  towards 
the  end  of  the  month. 

Cabbage  and  cauliflower  may  now  be  sown,  but  the 
main  sowing  should  be  deferred  until  next  month. 

Carrots. — A   sowing   should   be   made. 

Celery. — Sow  and  transplant  what  plants  there  may 
be  on  hand. 

Cucumbers.— These    can   be    sown    now  for    pickling. 

Endive. — Transplant   and   sow. 

Grapes  should  be  kept  well  tied  to  trellis  and  unneces- 
sary growth  removed,  so  that  the  wood  may  have  the 
chance  of  becoming  thoroughly  ripened.  If  the  cultiva- 
tor and  plow  are  not  used  judiciously  a  second  growth 
will  be  started,  which  is  not  desirable. 

Lettuce. — The  seed  requires  to  be  sprouted  before  being 
sown,  and  if  the  sowing  is  done  on  a  dry  day  the 
drills  should  be  watered. 

Radishes. — Sow   the    summer   kinds. 

Strawberries.—  Keep  the  beds  clear  of  weeds  and  grass. 

Tomatoes. —  Make  a  sowing  early  in  the  month,  or 
what  is  much  better,  take  cutting  from  plants  still  in 
bearing. 

Turnips.— Sow  a  few  after  a  shower  towards  the  end 
of  the  month. 

Remarks. — Much  cannot  be  done  this  month,  as  the 
weather  is  hot  and  dry,  but  the  opportunity  should  not 
be  lost  for  killing  weeds  and  preparing  for  the  plant- 
ing season,  which  is  now  rapidly  drawing  near. 


408  SEASONAL    REMINDERS 


AUGUST 

Artichokes. — Seed  of  the  Green  Globe  can  be  sown  now 
and  large  plants  obtained  by  spring.  The  seed-bed  re- 
quires to  be  shaded. 

Bush  beans,  beets,  pole  beans,  carrots,  celery,  endive,  kohl- 
rabi, lettuce,  mustard,  Black  Spanish  and  Rose  China 
radishes,  parsley,  turnips,  ruta-bagas,  and  salad  plants  of  all 
kinds  may  now  be  sown.  The  seed  should  be  sown  on 
small  ridges,  proportionate  to  the  kind  of  plants,  for  level 
culture  is  not  successful  in  the  vegetable  garden  in  this 
section. 

Broccoli  should  be  more  cultivated,  and  is  hardier  than 
the  cauliflower.  Many  cannot  tell  the  difference  between 
the  two.  Sow  now. 

Cabbages  must  be  sown  by  the  middle  of  the  month. 
Make  the  ground  very  rich  and  shade  the  seed-bed,  keep- 
ing it  moist  during  the  whole  of  the  time. 

Cauliflower  should  also  be  sown. 

Potatoes,  Irish,  should  be  planted  by  the  middle  of  the 
month,  if  possible.  Plant  only  those  that  have  sprouted, 
and  instead  of  planting  on  top  of  the  ridge  set  in  the  fur- 
row and  cover  two  inches  deep ;  as  the  potatoes  grow,  work 
more  soil  down  to  them. 

Potatoes,  sweet. — Vines  may  still  be  set  out,  with  pros- 
pects of  harvesting  a  fair  crop. 

Salsify. — Sow  now  or  early  next  month. 

Shallots. — Plant  them  now. 

Squash. — Bush  kinds  can  be  planted  now  at  any  time. 

Tomatoes. — If  short  of  plants,  cut  off  good-sized  limbs 
from  bearing  plants  and  plant  them  deep.  Keep  them 
moist,  and  they  will  root  in  a  few  days.  Do  this  just  be- 
fore it  rains. 

SEPTEMBER 

Annuals  of  the  hardy  class  may  be  sown  this  month;  the 
following  list  will  assist  in  making  a  selection :  Calliopsis, 
candytuft,  calendulas,  canterbury  bells,  columbine,  corn- 
flower, daisies,  forget-me-nots,  gaillardia,  godetia,  lark- 
spur, lAmnanthes  Douglasii,  mignonette,  pansies,  Phlox 
Drummondii,  primroses,  poppies  of  all  kinds,  Saponaria 
Calabrica,  Silene  pendula,  sweet-williams  and  sweet  peas. 

Bulbs. — Study  the  catalogues  and  make  out  your  wants, 
for  it  is  nearing  planting  time. 


SEPTEMBER  AND  OCTOBER  IN  THE  SOUTH  409 

Lilies. — If  success  is  required  of  the  St.  Joseph's  or 
Virgin  lily  (L.  candidum) ,  it  must  be  planted  right  away. 

Perennials  and  biennials  should  be  sown  early  this  month. 
They  have  two  good  growing  months  ahead  of  them  yet  to 
make  considerable  progress.  The  seed-bed  will  require 
shade  during  the  middle  of  the  day  until  the  young  plants 
come  up ;  frequent  weedings  will  be  required,  as  coco  has 
not  yet  quit  growing,  and  winter  weeds  are  now  putting  in 
an  appearance. 

Remarks. — All  plants  used  for  salad  purposes  can  be  sown 
this  month.  The  ground  between  the  rows  of  growing 
crops  should  be  kept  in  a  nice,  friable  condition.  Vege- 
table seeds  of  all  kinds  should  always  be  sown  on  slight 
ridges  on  all  but  very  sandy  soils.  If  the  seed  is  sown  on 
a  level  bed,  as  practiced  at  the  North,  the  ground  will 
become  as  hard  as  a  turnpike  road  should  a  heavy  rain 
occur;  and  should  this  shower  come  along  before  the  plants 
are  up,  a  crust  a  quarter  of  an  inch  deep  will  be  formed, 
and  the  plants  will  never  see  daylight.  Sown  on  a  ridge 
they  come  all  right,  as  the  water  gradually  drains  away, 
leaving  the  top  of  the  ridge  nice  and  soft. 


OCTOBER 

All  spring  flower  seeds  should  be  sown  in  boxes,  or  trays 
in  the  conservatory,  and  all  spring  bulbs  should  be  planted. 
The  hyacinth,  narcissus,  tulip  and  anemone,  ranunculus 
and  various  lily  bulbs,  will  bloom  in  good  season  planted 
at  this  time.  The  bedding  plants  should  be  carefully 
watched,  so  that  any  attack  of  aphis  could  be  treated  im- 
mediately. Sweet  peas  may  be  planted  the  first  of  this 
month,  although  they  are  commonly  sown  in  September. 
A  rich  spot  should  be  selected  for  them.  This  is  the  time 
to  make  the  new  lawn.  The  soil  should  be  thoroughly 
stirred  and  well  pulverized,  mixing  in  a  good  dressing 
of  commercial  fertilizer,  or  if  one  prefers  it,  a  mixture 
which  may  be  made  at  home,  consisting  of  cotton  seed 
meal,  acid  phosphate  and  sulphate  of  potash,  at  the  rate 
of  1,000  Ibs.,  300  Ibs.,  and  100  Ibs.  respectively,  per  acre. 
A  rich,  well -rotted  compost,  as  a  top  dressing,  would  also 
be  highly  beneficial.  Roses  pruned  late  in  September  or 
early  this  month  will  produce  fine  winter  blooms. 

In  the  garden  this  is  a  busy  month;  some  of  the  winter 
vegetables  are  growing,  and  others  should  be  sown.  The 


410  SEASONAL    REMINDERS 

bud  artichokes  should  be  separated  and  set  fully  three  feet 
apart.  Onions  may  still  be  sown  in  the  early  part  of  the 
month,  and  shallots  should  be  divided  and  set.  Some  beans 
may  be  risked,  and  English  peas  sown  for  winter  crop.  A 
few  cauliflowers  may  be  tried  and  cucumbers  planted  in  pots 
for  the  hotbeds  next  month.  The  following  vegetables 
should  be  sown:  Carrots,  corn  salad,  chervil,  Brussels 
sprouts,  broccoli,  beets,  endive,  kohl-rabi,  kale,  lettuce, 
leeks,  mustard,  parsley,  parsnip,  radish,  roquette,  spinach, 
Swiss  chard,  salsify.  Some  cabbage  and  a  few  cauliflowers 
should  be  added  to  the  list. 

Turnips  should  be  sown  for  succession  every  two  weeks 
until  April  or  May.  The  celery  should  be  kept  growing  and 
banking  up  commenced.  This  is  an  excellent  time  to  plant 
the  na.w  strawberry  bed.  Make  the  bed  rich  with  well- 
rotted  manure  and  select  good,  healthy  sets.  The  Michel's 
Early  and  Cloud  are  probably  the  most  popular  varieties 
for  general  planting,  and  should  be  set  in  alternating  rows. 

NOVEMBER 

Flower  seeds  and  bulbs  may  be  planted  this  month  of 
the  same  varieties  as  in  October.  Cuttings  of  all  the 
herbaceous  plants  should  '  be  made  and  potted,  for  use 
in  the  house  and  for  the  borders  next  season.  The  cold- 
frames  should  also  be  put  in  order.  Some  of  the  bulbs 
for  winter  forcing  should  be  selected  and  potted.  One 
of  the  best  Louisiana  gardeners  recommends  the  follow- 
ing treatment:  Select  good,  strong  bulbs  and  plant  them 
in  rich,  light  soil,  in  five  inch  pots,  covering  them  about 
half  an  inch.  Water  well  and  bury  the  pots  six  or 
eight  inches  deep  in  the  ground,  leaving  them  there 
about  five  weeks,  when  the  bulbs  will  be  found  to  be 
well  rooted.  From  this  time  gradually  expose  to  the 
light,  and  they  will  soon  put  forth  blooms. 

The  same  vegetables  may  be  sown  as  for  October, 
and  the  late  cabbage  seed  planted.  The  Flat  Dutch  and 
Drumhead  strains  are  prime  favorites.  New  sowings  of 
peas,  turnips,  mustard  and  radishes  should  be  made, 
and  the  hotbeds  prepared  and  set  out  to  cucumbers. 
Too  much  care  can  not  be  taken  that  the  manure  should 
be  in  the  best  condition  possible,  so  that  a  good  supply 
of  heat  can  be  depended  upon.  The  cucumbers  planted 
last  month  will  be  ready  now  for  setting  in  the  hotbeds, 
and  a  winter  crop  forced. 


DECEMBER    IN    THE    SOUTH  411 

Orchard  and  vineyard  planting. — This  is  the  time  to 
prepare  land.  That  on  which  a  late  crop  of  cow- peas 
has  grown  is  well  suited  for  the  purpose,  and  should 
be  plowed  deeply  and  well  worked  over.  Towards  the 
last  of  the  month  it  should  be  cultivated  again,  in 
order  to  be  ready  for  the  trees  next  month. 


DECEMBER 

Lawns  and  yards  need  watching  this  month,  and  at- 
tention should  be  paid  to  the  old  leaves  and  'fall 
rubbish,  which  makes  the  yard  look  untidy.  A  good 
place  for  the  leaves  is  the  compost  heap.  Hedges 
should  be  put  in  shape  and  the  surface  drains  kept 
open.  Shrubs  and  roses  should  be  pruned  for  an  early 
supply  of  flowers.  The  Camellia  Japonicas  are  now  in 
bloom,  and  care  should  be  taken  that  the  small  branches 
are  not  torn  off,  instead  of  being  cut  properly.  Many 
of  these  most  beautiful  of  southern  ornamental  trees 
have  been  ruined  by  careless  plucking  of  flowers. 

Garden  and  orchard.— Many  of  the  fall  vegetables  may 
be  sown  this  month  and  others  sown  for  a  succession. 
Peas,  spinach,  roquette,  radishes,  lettuce,  endive,  and 
some  Early  York  cabbage  should  also  be  sown.  In  the 
old  spent  hotbeds,  tomatoes,  peppers  and  eggplants  may 
be  started;  there  will  not  be  enough  heat  to  hurry  them, 
and  good,  strong  stocky  plants  will  be  secured  if  care 
is  taken.  Irish  potatoes  may  be  risked,  should  there  be 
a  favorable  time  for  planting  during  the  latter  part  of 
the  month.  Usually  they  are  planted  in  January.  The 
chances  are  about  equal  should  they  be  planted  late  this 
month.  Nuts  of  all  kinds,  both  for  budding  and  other- 
wise, should  be  planted.  Some  of  the  best  Louisiana 
pecans  are  said  to  come  true  from  seed,  and  may  be 
sown  where  they  are  intended  to  grow. 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Aconite,  Winter 272 

Alliaceous  plants    360 

Alonsoa 257 

Amaranthus  252 

Arnmoniacal  copper  carbonate  .  100 

Andromedas  217 

Animals,  injuries  by 103 

Anise  385 

Annuals 255 

Apple 308 

Apple-scab 312 

Apricot 323 

Aquatics 242 

Aralia 253 

Artichoke 384 

Asparagus 382 

Asters 257 

Bagging  grapes 335 

Balm 385 

Bamboo 290 

Banana   330 

Banks 181 

Bartonia 258 

Basil   385 

Bavarian  garden 352 

Beans 361 

Bedding 241,  243 

Beets 353 

Bordeaiix  mixture 99 

Borders 142,  217 

Blackberries,  protecting 63 

Blackberry 339 

Blight  of  pear 316 

Braehycome 258 

Brassicaceous  plants 364 

Broccoli 368 

Brussels  Sprouts 36!) 


PAGE 

Bryonopsis 263 

Bulbs   267 

Burdock 5 

Burnette,  F.  H.,  Calendars  by  .  389 

Burpee,  book  by 366 

Cabbage  maggots 96 

Cabbages 365 

Calendars 386 

Calliopsis 258 

Campanulas 285 

Canker-worm  92 

Cannas 253 

Caraway 385 

Cardiospermum 265 

Carpet-bedding 140,  243 

Carrots    355 

Castor  oil  plant 254 

Catnip 385 

Cutworms 93 

Cauliflowers 367 

Celeriac 382 

Celery 380 

Cellars  for  fruit 306,  307 

Cement    195 

Chard 379 

Cherry 323 

Chicory 378 

Chionodoxa 272 

Climbing  plants 213,  214,  235, 

263,  291 

Chives 361 

Chrysanthemums 258,  288 

City  lot,  plants  for 168 

Clarkia 259 

Clary 385 

Clematis 236,  293 

Coboea...  ...265 


(413) 


414 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Coldframes 71 

Collards 369 

Columbine 284 

Conifers 216, 225-234 

Convallaria 272,  2H2 

Convolvulus 265 

Copper  carbonate 100 

Coreopsis 258 

Coriander 385 

Corn 383 

Corn  Salad 378 

Costmary 385 

Covering  plants 60 

Cress 377 

Crocus 270 

Curbs 183,  189 

Cucumbers 373 

Cucurbitaceous  plants  373 

Curculio 318 

Currants 340 

Curves 186 

Daffodil 271 

Dahlia 275 

Dandelion 378 

Dewberry 339 

Dibbers 41 

Dill 385 

Discloth  Gourd 375 

Diseases 88 

Dolichos 265 

Donnell,  Webb 352 

Draining 12 

Draining  streets 191 

Drives 184 

Dwarf  fruits 304 

Eccremocarpus 265 

Edgings 251 

Eggplant 371 

Endive 378 

Enriching  land 114 

Eranthis 272 

Erythronium 282 

Eschscholtzia 259 

Evergreens 216,  225,  234 


PAGE 

Falconer,  book  by 353 

Falconer,  quoted 144 

Fences 183 

Fennel 381 

Fertilizers 114 

Fig 333 

Filling  about  trees 185 

Flower-beds 136,  142,  241 

Flower-border 142 

Flower-garden 136,  142,  144 

Flowers 138,  144,  241 

Forcing 07 

Forcing-box 69 

Forcing-hill 67 

Forcing-house 83 

Forsy  thias 213 

Frames 71 

Fungi 88 

Fruit-plantation 302 

Fumigating 97 

Fundamentals      of     landscape 

gardening 154 

Gaillardia 559 

Galanthus 271 

Gall  on  grape 334 

Galls 91 

Gilia 259 

Gladiolus 274 

Godetia  259 

Goff ,  quoted 96 

Gooseberries 342 

Gourd 375 

Grading 177,  200 

Graf  ting- wax 108 

Grape 332 

Grass  for  lawns 201 

Grasses,  hardy 290 

Greiner,  T.,  calendars  by   389 

Guards  for  trees 103 

Gumbo 384 

Gutter  196 

Hand-box 69 

Harrows 20 

Heeling-in 58 


INDEX 


415 


PAGE 

Hedges 214 

Hellebore 99 

Keeping  fruit 307 

Herbaceous  perennials.  238, 278, 291 

Hicks,  moving  trees 47 

Hitching  posts 104 

Hitching  to  a  tree 109 

Hoes 24 

Hop 265 

Horehound : 385 

Horse,  hitching 109 

Horse-radish 359 

Hotbeds 75 

Humulus 265 

Husk  tomato 371 

Hyacinth 270 

Hyssop 385 

Insects    88,  93 

Ipomoea 265 

Jonquil    271 

June-grass  for  lawn 201 

Kainit 118 

Kale   369 

Kalmias 217 

Kerosene  emulsion 99 

King,  book  by 7,  116 

Kitchen  garden  348 

Labels  109 

Lavender 385 

Land ,  enriching 114 

—  preparing  the 7 

Lawn 132,  139 

—  making 199 

Laying  down  plants 62 

Leek 361 

Lettuce   376 

Leguminous  plants  361 

Lilies   272 

Lily-of-the-valley 272,  282 

Lima  beans 363 

Lodeman,  book  by 100 

London  purple 98 

Long,  quoted 217 

Lovage 385 


PAGE 

Lombardy   151 

Luffa 375,376 

Lupton,  quoted 367 

Maggots  in  cabbage 96 

Maize 254 

Manures 114 

Maps  and  plans 195 

Marigold 261 

Marjoram 385 

Markers 35 

Martynia 384 

Mass-beds 251 

Mathews,  quoted 142 

Mats 86 

Maurandya 265 

Melons 374 

Mice 105 

Michigan,  list  for 220 

Mimulus 261 

Mint 3S5 

Moisture,  saving 7 

Morning-glory 265 

Mowing  lawns 204 

Moving  trees 45 

Mulching 59 

Muskmelons 374 

Mushrooms 353 

Mustard 379 

Narcissus 270 

Nasturtium 263,  266 

Nectarine 323 

Nemophila 261 

Nitrogen 116 

Nozzles 102 

Okra 384 

Old-fashioned  garden 144 

Olive 329 

Onion 360 

Orange 325 

Pansy 261 

Paris  green 98 

Parlsey 380 

Parsnips 357 

Peach...  ...319 


416 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Pear 313 

Peas 363 

Pea,  Sweet 266 

Pennyroyal 385 

Peppermint 385 

Peppers 372 

Petunia 262 

Phlox 262 

Phosphoric  acid 116 

Physalis 371 

Picture  in  landscape 121 

Pineapple 330 

Plan  of  the  place 120 

Plans  and  maps 195 

Plant-food llf 

Planting  ornamental  grounds. .  .211 

Plowing 18 

Plum 317 

Polyanthus 271 

Poplar,  Lombardy 151 

Poplars 151,  212 

Papaver 262 

Poppy 262 

Portulacca 251 

Potash 116 

Potato 359 

Pot-herbs 376 

Preparing  the  land 7 

Protecting  plants 58 

Pruning 53,  133,  306 

Pumpkins 375 

Pumps 101 

Quince 325 

Rabbits 105 

Radish 357 

Raking  lawns 205 

Raisins 335 

Raspberry 336 

Records 109 

Reeds 290 

Rhododendrons 217 

Rhubarb 380 

Ribbon-beds 251 

Riciuus 254 


Roberts,  book  by. 

Rollers 

Rolling  lawns 

Root  crops 

Rosemary 


PAGE 
,...7,  10,  116 

33 

207 

353 

385 

148,  229,  294 

Ruta-bagas 355 

Sage 385 

Salad  plants 376 

Solanaceous  plants 369 

Salsify 357 

Salvia «.;..262 

Savory 385 

Seed,  sowing 37 

Scale  insects 93 

School  grounds,. 198 

Scilla 272 

Shade,  plants  for 210 

Shearing  plants 39 

Shelter  belts 221 

Shrubs  for  city  lot 168 

-list  of 226 

Simonds,  O.  C 189 

Small-fruits 336 

Smith,  H.  W.,  calendars  by  ...  .389 

Snow-drop 271 

Socrates,  quoted 2 

Sodding 207 

Sorrel  379 

Sowing  seed 37 

Spearmint 385 

Spinach 378 

Sponge,  vegetable 376 

Spraying 98 

Spuds 32 

Squash 374 

Stake  label 109 

Storing  fruits 306-308 

Strawberries 343 

Streets,  suburban 189 

Subsoiling 16 

Sub-tropical  fruits 325 

Suburban  streets 189 

Sunken  fence 183 


INDEX 


417 


PAGE 

Sweet  corn 383 

—  herbs 385 

-pea   266 

—  potato 359 

Swiss  Chard 379 

Sylvinit 118 

Taft,  L.  R.,  011  fruits 305 

Tallies 110 

Tansy 385 

Tarryer,  quoted 25 

Terraces 179 

Thyme.- '. 385 

Time  to  plant 55 

Tomato 371 

Torenia 252 

Tracy's  kitchen  garden 349 

Transplanting 38,  44,  217 

Trees,  age  to  buy 305 

-list  of 221 

—  moving 45 

Tricker,  book  by 243 

Trillium 281 

Trowels 32 

Tropoeolum 263,  266 

Tropical  effects 252 

Tuberose 277 

Tulip 270 

Turnip 354 


PAGE 

Vegetable  garden 348 

Vegetable  sponge 375 

Verbena 263 

Vermin 105 

Vines 214,  235 

Vista 125 

Walker,  Ernest 241 

Walks 184 

Water  lilies 243 

Watermelons 374 

Waugh  on  vegetables 353 

Wax,  grafting 108 

Weeders 35 

Weedland 147 

Weeping  trees 151,  172 

Wheel-hoes 22 

Whitewashing 64 

Whitlavia 252 

Whitten,  quoted 64 

Wigandia 254 

Willows 153 

Windbreaks 221 

Winter  protection 58 

Wormwood 385 

Yards 159  et  seq. 

Yellows 321 

Zea 254 

Zinnia 263 


AA 


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BUSH-FRUITS.  By  F.  W.  CARD,  of  Rhode  Island  College  of  Agriculture 
and  Mechanic  Arts.  Second  edition.  537  pp.  113  illustrations.  $1.50. 

FERTILIZERS.  By  E.  B.  VOORHEES,  of  New  Jersey  Experiment  Station. 
Second  edition.  332  pp.  $1.00. 

THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  AGRICULTURE.  By  L.  H.  BAILEY.  Third  edition. 
300pp.  92  illustrations.  $1.25. 

IRRIGATION  AND  DRAINAGE.  By  F.  H.  King,  University  of  Wisconsin. 
502  pp.  163  illustrations.  $1.50. 

THE  FARMSTEAD.    By  I.  P.  ROBERTS.    350  pp.    138  illustrations.    $1.25. 

RURAL  WEALTH  AND  WELFARE.  By  GEORGE  T.  PAIRCHILD,  Ex-Presi- 
dent of  the  Agricultural  College  of  Kansas.  381  pp.  14  charts.  $1.25. 

THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  VEGETABLE-GARDENING.  By  L.  H.  BAILEY 
468  pp.  144  illustrations.  $1.25. 

THE  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS.  By  W.  H.  JORDAN,  of  New  York  State 
Experiment  Station.  450  pp.  $1.25  net. 

FARM  POULTRY.  By  GEORGE  C.  WATSON,  of  Pennsylvania  State  College. 
341  pp.  $1.25  net. 

New  volumes  will  be  added  from  time  to  time  to 
the  RURAL  SCIENCE  SERIES.  The  following  are  in 
preparation : 

PHYSIOLOGY  OF  PLANTS.    By  J.  C.  ARTHUR,  Purdue  University. 
BREEDING  OF  ANIMALS.    By  W.  H.  BREWER,  of  Yale  University. 
PLANT  PATHOLOGY.    By  B.  T.  GALLOWAY  and  associates  of  U.  S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture. 

CARE  OF  ANIMALS.  By  N.  S.  MAYO,  of  Connecticut  Agricultural  College. 
THE  POME  FRUITS  (Apples,  Pears,  Quinces).  By  L.  H.  BAILEY. 


THE   GARDEN-CRAFT   SERIES 

Comprises  practical  hand-books  for  the  horticultur- 
ist, explaining  and  illustrating  in  detail  the  various 
important  methods  which  experience  has  demon- 
strated to  be  the  most  satisfactory.  They  may  be 
called  manuals  of  practice,  and  though  all  are  pre- 
pared by  Professor  BAILEY,  of  Cornell  University, 
they  include  the  opinions  and  methods  of  success- 
ful specialists  in  many  lines,  thus  combining  the 
results  of  the  observations  and  experiences  of  nu- 
merous students  in  this  and  other  lands.  They  are 
written  in  the  clear,  strong,  concise  English  and  in 
the  entertaining  style  which  characterize  the  author. 
The  volumes  are  compact,  uniform  in  style,  clearly 
printed,  and  illustrated  as  the  subject  demands. 
They  are  of  convenient  shape  for  the  pocket,  and 
are  substantially  bound  in  flexible  green  cloth. 

THE   HORTICULTURIST'S   RULE-BOOK.      By  L.  H.  BAILEY.     Fourth 
edition.    312  pp.    75  cts. 

THE  NURSERY-BOOK.    By  L.  H.  BAILEY.      Fifth  edition.    365  pp.     152 
illustrations.    $1.00. 

PLANT-BREEDING.    By  L.  H.  BAILEY.    293  pp.    20  illustrations.    $1.00. 
THE  FORCING-BOOK.     By  L.  H.  BAILEY.    26G  pp.    88  illustrations.    $1.00. 

GARDEN-MAKING.     By  L.  H.  BAILEY.  Fourth  edition.    417  pp.    256  illus- 
trations.   $1.00. 

THE  PRUNING-BOOK.    By  L.  H.  BAILEY.     Third   edition.    545  pp.    331 
illustrations.    $1.50. 

THE  PRACTICAL  GARDEN-BOOK.    By  C.  £.  HUNN  and  L.  H.  BAILBY. 

250  pp.    Many  marginal  cuts.    $1.00. 


T 


WORKS    BY    PROFESSOR    BAILEY 

HE     EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NA- 
TIVE    FRUITS.      By   L.    H.  BAILEY,   Pro- 

fessor  of  Horticulture  in  the  Cornell  University. 

472    PACES— 125    ILLUSTRATIONS— SZ. 00 

In  this  entertaining  volume,  the  origin  and  de- 
velopment of  the ,  fruits  peculiar  to  North  America 
are  inquired  into,  and  the  personality  of  those  horti- 
cultural pioneers  whose  almost  forgotten  labors 
have  given  us  our  most  valuable  fruits  is  touched 
upon.  There  has  been  careful  research  into  the 
history  of  the  various  fruits,  including  inspection 
of  the  records  of  the  great  European  botanists  who 
have  given  attention  to  American  economic  botany. 
The  conclusions  reached,  the  information  presented, 
and  the  suggestions  as  to  future  developments,  can- 
not but  be  valuable  to  any  thoughtful  fruit-grower, 
while  the  terse  style  of  the  author  is  at  its  best  in 
his  treatment  of  the  subject. 

THE  EVOLUTION  OP  OUR  NATIVE  FRUITS  discusses  The  Rise  of 
the  American  Grape  (North  America  a  Natural  Vineland,  Attempts 
to  Cultivate  the  European  Grape,  The  Experiments  of  the  Dufours, 
The  Branch  of  Promise,  John  Adlum  and  the  Oatawba,  Rise  of 
Commercial  Viticulture,  Why  Did  the  Early  Vine  Experiments  Fail  * 
Synopsis  of  the  American  Grapes) ;  The  Strange  History  of  the  Mul- 
berries (The  Early  Silk  Industry,  The  "Multicaulis  Craze,") ;  Evolu- 
tion of  American  Plums  and  Cherries  (Native  Plums  in  General, 
The  Chickasaw,  Hortulana,  Marianna  and  Beach  Plum  Groups, 
Pacific  Coast  Plum,  Various  Other  Types  of  Plums,  Native  Cherries, 
Dwarf  Cherry  Group);  Native  Apples  (Indigenous  Species,  Amelio- 
ration has  begun);  Origin  of  American  Raspberry-growing  (Early 
American  History,  Present  Types,  Outlying  Types) ;  Evolution  of 
Blackberry  and  Dewberry  Culture  (The  High -bush  Blackberry  and 
Its  Kin,  The  Dewberries,  Botanical  Names);  Various  Types  of 
Berry-like  Fruits  (The  Gooseberry,  Native  Currants,  Juneberry, 
Buffalo  Berry,  Elderberry,  High-bush  Cranberry,  Cranberry,  Straw- 
berry); Various  Types  of  Tree  Fruits  (Persimmon,  Custard-Apple 
Tribe,  Thorn-Apples,  Nut-Fruits) ;  General  Remarks  on  the  Improve- 
ment of  our  Native  Fruits  (What  Has  Been  Done,  What  Probably 
Should  Be  Done). 


WORKS    BY  PROFESSOR    BAILEY 

iiE  SURVIVAL  OF  THE  UNLIKE: 

A  Collection  of  Evolution  Essays  Suggested 
by  the  Study  of  Domestic  Plants.    By  L.  H. 

BAILEY,    Professor  of    Horticulture   in   the  Cornell 
University. 

FOURTH  EDITION— B  16    PACES  — 22    ILLUSTRATIONS  — $2.00 

To  those  interested  in  the  underlying  philosophy 
of  plant  life,  this  volume,  written  in  a  most  enter- 
taining style,  and  fully  illustrated,  will  prove  wel- 
come. It  treats  of  the  modification  of  plants  under 
cultivation  upon  the  evolution  theory,  and  its  atti- 
tude on  this  interesting  subject  is  characterized 
by  the  author's  well-known  originality  and  inde- 
pendence of  thought.  Incidentally,  there  is  stated 
much  that  will  be  valuable  and  suggestive  to  the 
working  horticulturist,  as  well  as  to  the  man  or 
woman  impelled  by  a  love  of  nature  to  horticul- 
tural pursuits.  It  may  well  be  called,  indeed,  a 
philosophy  of  horticulture,  in  which  all  interested 
may  find  inspiration  and  instruction. 

THE  SURVIVAL  OF  THE  UNLIKE  comprises  thirty  essays  touching 
upon  The  General  Fact  and  Philosophy  of  Evolution  (The  Plant 
Individual,  Experimental  Evolution,  Coxey's  Army  and  the  Russian 
Thistle,  Recent  Progress,  etc.);  Expounding  the  Fact  and  Causes  of 
Variation  (The  Supposed  Correlations  of  Quality  in  Fruits,  Natural 
History  of  Synonyms,  Reflective  Impressions,  Relation  of  Seed- 
bearing  to  Cultivation,  Variation  after  Birth,  Relation  between 
American  and  Eastern  Asian  Fruits,  Horticultural  Geography,  Prob- 
lems of  Climate  and  Plants,  American  Fruits,  Acclimatization,  Sex 
in  Fruits,  Novelties,  Promising  Varieties,  etc.);  and  Tracing  the 
Evolution  of  Particular  Types  of  Plants  (the  Cultivated  Strawberry, 
Battle  of  the  Plums,  Grapes,  Progress  of  the  Carnation.  Petunia. 
The  Garden 'Tomato,  etc.). 


CYCLOPEDIA  Of 
AMERICAN  HORTICULTURE 


COMPRISING  DIRECTIONS  FOR  THE  CULTIVATION  OF  HORTICULTURAL 
CROPS,  AND  ORIGINAL  DESCRIPTIONS  OF  ALL  THE  SPECIES  OF 
FRUITS,  VEGETABLES,  FLOWERS  AND  ORNAMENTAL  PLANTS  KNOWN 
TO  BE  IH  THE  MARKET  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  AND  CANADA 

BY  L.   H.  BAILEY 

ASSISTED   BY  MANY  EXPERT  CULTIVATORS  AND   BOTANISTS 

In  Four  Quarto  Volumes, 
Illustrated  with  over  Two  Thousand  Original  Engravings 

THIS   monumental  work,  the  most  comprehensive 
review  of  the  vegetable  world  yet  made  by  an 
American,  is  now  in  the  press.  Though  distinctly 
an  American  work,  not    only   plants   indigenous   to 
the   North  American   continent   are   mentioned,  but 
also   all   the  Species   known   to   be  in  the   horticul- 
tural  trade   in   North  America,  of  whatever  origin. 
It  is  really  a  survey  of  the  cultivated  plants  of  the 
world. 

The  Editor,  Professor  L.  H.  Bailey,  has  been 
gathering  material  for  this  Cyclopedia  for  man}- 
years.  He  has  enlisted  the  cooperation  of  many 
men  of  attainments,  either  in  science  or  practice, 
and  the  Cyclopedia  has  the  unique  distinction  of 
presenting  for  the  first  time,  in  a  carefully  arranged 
and  perfectly  accessible  form,  the  best  knowledge  of 
the  best  specialists  in  America  upon  gardening, 
fruit-growing,  vegetable  culture,  forestry,  and  the 


like,  as  well  as  exact  botanical  information.  It  is 
all  fresh,  and  not  a  rehash  of  old  material.  No 
precedent  has  been  followed ;  the  work  is  upon  its 
own  original  plan. 

Many  scientific  botanical  authors  of  justly  high 
repute  decline  to  give  attention  to  the  important 
characters  of  cultivated  plants,  confining  their  work 
to  the  species  in  the  original  forms  only.  Pro- 
fessor Bailey  takes  the  view  that  a  subject  of  com- 
mercial importance,  one  which  engages  the  attention 
and  affects  the  livelihood  of  thousands  of  bright 
people,  is  decidedly  worthy  the  investigation  of  the 
trained  botanist.  In  the  Cyclopedia  of  American 
Horticulture,  therefore,  very  full  accounts  are  given 
of  the  botanical  features  of  all  important  commercial 
plants,  as  the  apple,  cabbage,  rose,  etc.  At  the  same 
time,  practical  cultivators  submit  observations  upon 
culture,  marketing,  and  the  like,  and  frequently  two 
opinions  are  presented  upon  the  same  subject  from 
different  localities,  so  that  the  reader  may  have 
before  him  not  only  complete  botanical  information, 
but  very  fully  the  best  practice  in  the  most  favor- 
able localities  for  the  perfection  of  any  fruit  or 
vegetable  or  economic  plant. 

ILLUSTRATIONS 

The  pictorial  character  of  the  work  is  likewise  nota- 
ble. There  are  nearly  three  thousand  illustrations, 
and  they  are  made  expressly  for  this  work,  either 
from  accurate  photographs  or  from  the  specimens. 
These  illustrations  have  been  drawn  by  competent 


horticultural  artists,  in  nearly  every  case  under  the; 
eye  of  the  Editor,  or  with  the  supervision  of  some 
one  of  the  sub-editors.  No  "trade"  cuts  are  used. 

En  planning  the  illustrations,  artistic  effect  has 
been  kept  in  view,  and  while  no  drawing  is  used 
which  does  not  show  its  subject  with  perfect  scien- 
tific accuracy,  the  monotonous  so-called  "botanical" 
outlines,  often  made  from  lifeless  herbarium  speci- 
mens, are  notably  absent.  The  intention  is  to  show 
the  life  of  the  plant,  not  merely  its  skeleton. 

CONTRIBUTORS,  SYSTEM,  ETC. 

As  above  mentioned,  the  contributors  are  men 
eminent  as  cultivators  or  as  specialists  in  the  various 
subjects.  The  important  articles  are  signed,  and  it 
is  expected  that  the  complete  work  will  include  fully 
5,000  signed  contributions  by  horticulturists,  culti- 
vators and  botanists. 

The  arrangement  is  alphabetical  as  to  the  genera, 
but  systematic  in  the  species.  A  very  simple  but 
complete  plan  of  key -letters  is  used,  and  the  whole 
arrangement  is  toward  ease  of  reference  as  well  as 
completeness  of  information.  To  each  large  genus 
there  is  a  separate  alphabetic  index. 

Important  commercial  subjects  are  treated  usually 
under  the  best  known  name,  whether  it  be  the 
scientific  or  "common"  designation.  Thus,  the  apple 
is  fully  discussed  as  apple,  rather  than  as  Pyrus 
Mains,  and  the  carnation  comes  into  view  in  the 
third  letter  of  the  alphabet,  not  as  Dianthus  Caryo- 
phyllus.  Carefully  edited  cross-references  make  it 


easy  to  find  any  desired  subject,  however,  in  the 
shortest  time. 

The  plan  of  presenting  the  full  details  of  cul- 
ture of  important  plants,  through  the  views  of 
acknowledged  practical  experts  upon  the  various 
subjects,  assures  the  great  value  of  the  book  to  the 
man  or  woman  who  is  obtaining  a  living  from 
horticultural  pursuits. 

A  special  feature  of  the  Cyclopedia  of  American 
Horticulture  is  its  wealth  of  bibliographic  reference. 
The  world's  horticultural  literature  has  been  thor- 
oughly searched,  and  most  carefully  indexed,  so  that 
the  student  will  find  citations  to  nearly  every  avail- 
able article  or  illustration  upon  any  subject  consulted. 

DETAILS  OF  PUBLICATION 

The  Cyclopedia  of  American  Horticulture  is  to 
be  completed  in  four  handsome  quarto  volumes, 
embracing  about  two  thousand  pages,  with  more 
than  that  number  of  original  illustrations.  It  is 
carefully  printed  upon  specially  made  paper  of  a 
permanent  character.  Vol.  I  (A  to  D,  509  pages, 
743  illustrations,  9  plates),  Vol.  II  (E  to  M,  544 
pages,  710  illustrations,  10  plates),  and  Vol.  Ill  (N 
to  Q,  432  pages,  606  illustrations,  11  plates)  are  now 
ready,  and  the  work  will  be  completed  in  1901. 

The  work  is  sold  only  by  subscription,  and 
orders  will  be  accepted  for  the  full  set  only. 
Terms  and  further  information  may  be  had  of 
the  Publishers, 

THE    MACMILLAN    COMPANY 
No.  66  Fifth  Avenue  NEW   YORK 


WORKS    BY    PROFESSOR    BAILEY 

ESSONS  WITH  PLANTS:  Sugges- 
tions for  Seeing  and  Interpreting  Some  of 
the  Common  Forms  of  Vegetation.  By  L. 

H.  BAILEY,  Professor  of  Horticulture  in  the  Cornell 
University,  with  delineations  from  nature  by  W.  S. 
HOLDSWORTH,  of  the  Agricultural  College  of 
Michigan. 

SECOND  EDITION— 491  PACES— 446  ILLUSTRATIONS— 1  2  MO— 
CLOTH-*).  10  NET 

There  are  two  ways  of  looking  at  nature.  The 
old  way,  which  you  have  found  so  unsatisfactory, 
was  to  classify  everything — to  consider  leaves,  roots, 
and  whole  plants  as  formal  herbarium  specimens, 
forgetting  that  each  had  its  own  story  of  growth 
and  development,  struggle  and  success,  to  tell. 
Nothing  stifles  a  natural  love  for  plants  more  effect- 
ually than  that  old  way. 

The  new  way  is  to  watch  the  life  of  every  grow- 
ing thing,  to  look  upon  each  plant  as  a  living 
ereatu-re,  whose  life  is  a  story  as  fascinating  as  the 
story  of  any  favorite  hero.  "Lessons  with  Plants" 
is  a  book  of  stories,  or  rather,  a  book  of  plays,  for 
we  can  see  each  chapter  acted  out  if  we  take  the 
trouble  to  look  at  the  actors. 

"  I  have  spent  some  time  in  most  delightful  examination  of  it,  and  the 
longer  I  look,  the  better  I  like  it.  I  find  it  not  only  full  of  interest,  but 
eminently  suggestive.  I  know  of  no  book  which  begins  to  do  so  much  to 
open  the  eyes  of  the  student— whether  pupil  or  teacher  — to  the  wealth  of 
meaning  contained  in  simple  plant  forms.  Abov.e  all  else,  it  seems  to  be 
full  of  suggestions  that  help  one  to  learn  the  language  of  plants,  so  they 
may  talk  to  him."—  DARWIN  L.  BARDWELL,  Superintendent  of  /Schools,  Bing- 
hamton. 

"It  is  an  admirable  book,  and  cannot  fail  both  to  awaken  interest  in 
the  subject,  and  to  serve  as  a  helpful  and  reliable  guide  to  young  students 
of  plant  life.  It  will,  I  think,  fill  an  important  place  in  secondary  schools, 
and  comes  at  an  opportune  time,  when  helps  of  this  kind  are  needed  and 
eagerly  sought."— Professor  V.  M.  SPALDING,  University  of  Michigan. 

FIRST    LESSONS    WITH    PLANTS 

An  Abridgement  of  the  above.  117  pages — 116  illustra- 
tions—40  cents  net. 


B 


WORKS   BY  PROFESSOR   BAILEY 

OTANY :  An  Elementary  Text  for  Schools. 

By  L.  H.  BAILEY. 

35S    PACES— 500    ILLUSTRATIONS— $1.1 0   NET 


"This  book  is  made  for  the  pupil:  'Lessons  With  Plants' 
was  made  to  supplement  the  work  of  the  teacher."  This  is  the 
opening  sentence  of  the  preface,  showing  that  the  book  is  a 
companion  to  "Lessons  With  Plants,"  which  has  now  become  a 
standard  teacher's  book.  The  present  book  is  the  handsomest 
elementary  botanical  text-book  yet  made.  The  illustrations 
illustrate.  They  are  artistic.  The  old  formal  and  unnatural 
Botany  is  being  rapidly  outgrown.  The  book  disparages  mere 
laboratory  work  of  the  old  kind:  the  pupil  is  taught  to  see  things 
as  they  grow  and  behave.  The  pupil  who  goes  through  this  book 
will  understand  the  meaning  of  the  plants  which  he  sees  day 
by  day.  It  is  a  revolt  from  the  dry -as -dust  teaching  of  botany. 
It  cares  little  for  science  for  science'  sake,  but  its  point  of  view 
is  nature-study  in  its  best  sense.  The  book  is  divided  into  four 
parts,  any  or  all  of  which  may  be  used  in  the  school:  the  plant 
itself;  the  plant  in  its  environment;  histology,  or  the  minute 
structure  of  plants;  the  kinds  of  plants  (with  a  key,  and  de- 
scriptions of  300  common  species).  The  introduction  contains 
advice  to  teachers.  The  book  is  brand  new  from  start  to 
finish. 

"An  exceedingly  attractive  text-book." — Educational  Review. 
"It  is  a  school  book  of  the  modern  methods." — The  Dial. 

"It  would  be  hard  to  find  a  better  manual  for  schools  or  for  indi- 
vidual use."— The  Outlook. 


THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

No.  66  Fifth  Avenue  NEW  YORK 


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